MODELR—Model building and model modification for instruction

An integrated set of three computer programs that enable the implementation and student investigation of computer models of behavioral phenomena is described. These models are intended as tools for aiding in the instruction of undergraduate social science courses in research methods. Each program provides for natural language interaction with one of three classes of users: A “Modeler,” who implements a model of some behavioral phenomenon; an “Instructor,” who tailors his own or others’ models for his course of instruction; and a “Student Experimenter,” who applies an experimental design to the model and receives synthetic data in return. None of these users need have any prior computer expertise nor do they depend on external documentation on how to use the programs.     

Evidence for independent parallel channels in tachistoscopic perception

This paper reviews the implications of a number of experimental results for a test between two different types of models of perceptual processing: models that assume a limitation of perceptual capacity vs models that postulate independent, parallel perceptual channels. The results of recent “detection” experiments (e.g., Estes & Taylor, 1966) have been consistent with the limited-capacity model developed by Rumelhart (1970). The same results, however, are predicted by the “ICC” independent-parallel-channels model, an extension of work by Eriksen and Spencer (1969) developed in the present paper. This model emphasizes the interaction of two factors: decisional properties of the detection task, plus perceptual confusion phenomena known to occur under tachistoscopic conditions.Two experiments relevant to a test between the ICC and Rumelhart conceptions are reported. Experiment I involved a “time-sharing” paradigm that varied the demands of two detection tasks performed within a single trial. Experiment II involved the elimination of certain perceptual confusion phenomena. The results of Expts I and II appeared consistent with the ICC model but inconsistent with the Rumelhart model. After consideration of alternative limited-capacity models, it was concluded that: (1) a decision-confusion interaction is a necessary component of information-processing models, and that (2) the ICC independent-parallel-channels model is sufficient to account for the broad spectrum of experimental results reviewed.     

Secret ambitions and public performances: The effects of anonymity on reward allocations made by men and women

The degree of equality or equity in reward allocations made by men and women is explored in three studies. Study 1 was a classroom survey which was administered after the members had completed a series of team assignments. When asked to indicate anonymously whether they would share some points with team members who had earned fewer, the men more often said yes and the women no, contradicting the patterns found in much of the literature. Studies 2 and 3 examined the hypothesis that under public conditions men and women would behave as tradition and the previous literature suggest, allocating rewards equitably and equally, respectively. In private, however, they would reverse themselves, each preferring the otherwise forbidden option. The results confirmed the prediction: when anticipating disclosure of their decisions, men chose to divide credits equitably and women equally between themselves and a less deserving partner, but when assured of anonymity, men chose more equal and women more equitable allocations. The results are discussed in light of both childhood socialization and adult constraints on sex role performances.     

Paradoxical preference for more frequently occurring negative stimuli and for less frequently occurring positive stimuli as a function of amount of training in simultaneous discrimination learning

Development of a preference for more frequently occurring negative stimuli was found in a within-subject design. In this experiment, pigeons learned two simultaneous problems with an unequal number of training trials. At various stages in training, for example, the more-trained negative stimulus was paired with the less-trained negative stimulus for a single preference trial. These probe trials pointed to a swing in stimulus function in negative stimuli which also occurred at an earlier stage in positive (reward-correlated) stimuli. The paradoxical preference for less-trained positive over more-trained positive stimuli was found in this study, confirming the earlier reported phenomenon. The paradoxical preference for more-trained negative stimuli was discussed in terms of a frustration analysis. A symmetrical, albeit positive, emotional factor was discussed with regard to the paradoxical findings with positive probe trials.     

Avoidance conditioning as a function of appetitive stimulus pretraining: Response and stimulus transfer effects

Pretrained appetitive discriminative stimuli were used as warning signals in subsequent avoidance learning. In Expt 1 identical responses were required in pretraining and in avoidance learning. An appetitive S+ facilitated avoidance learning in rats in comparison to S? or a stimulus previously uncorrelated with food. In Expt 2, the type of response in pretraining and in avoidance learning was varied. Groups with homogeneous responses in the two situations replicated Expt 1 results, whereas groups with different responses in pretraining and avoidance learning failed to show an advantage when S+ served as warning; in the heterogeneous response groups, S? was as effective as S+. Inhibitory factors in the heterogeneous groups were discussed as an explanation for these results.     

Book reviews

ROBINSON, J. O. The psychology of Visual Illusion. London: Hutchinson University Library. 1972. Pp. 285. £ 3.00.

CARROLL, JOHN B. and FREEDLE, Roy O. (Eds). Language Comprehension and the Acquisition of Knowledge. New York: John Wiley. 1972.

PEARSON, R. The Avian Brain. London: Academic Press. 1972. Pp 624. £ 10.00.

KORNBLUM, S. (Ed.). Attention and Perfomance IV. New York and London: Academic Press. 1973. Pp. xxx+771. $ 18.50.

WASON, P. C. and JOHNSON-LAIRD, P. N. Psychology of Reasoming: Reasosming: Structure and Content. London: B. T. Batsford Limited. 1972. Pp 26.4. £ 3.50.

GILBERT, R. M. and MILLENSON, J. R. (Eds). Reinforcement: Behavioural Analysis. New York: Academic Press. 1972. Pp. xiii+288. £ 6.35.

STRONGMAN, K. T. The Psychology of Emotion. London: Wiley. 1973. Pp. 191. £ 3.50.

MYERS, R. D. (Ed.). Methods in psychobiology. Vol. 2. London and New York: Academic Press. 1972. Pp. xii+398. £ 6.50.

NILSSON, N. J. Problem-Solving Methods in Artificial Intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1971. Pp. 255. POund 5.40.

SHEEHAN, P. W. (Ed.). The function and Nature of Imagery. New York: Acadmic Press. 1972. Pp. $ 22.50.

CLARKE, E. and DEWHURST, K. An Illustrated of Brain Furction. Oxford: Sandford Publication. 1972. Pp. 154. £ 5.50.

SCHACHTER, S. Emotion, Obesity and Crime. New York: Academic Press. 1971. Pp. 195. £ 3.50.

MCGUIGAN, F. J. and LUMSDEN, D.B. (Eds). Contemporary Appraches to Conditioning and Learning. Washingotn, D. C.: v. H. Winston and Sons. 1973. Pp. xii+231. £ 6.50.

BECK, J. Surface Colour Perception. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. 1972.Pp. £ 11.50.     

Apraxia of speech in patients with Broca's aphasia: A study of phoneme production accuracy and error patterns

Phonetic analyses were made of the articulatory errors of ten Broca's aphasics with apraxia of speech. Presentation mode, phoneme position, and phoneme frequency-of-occurrence were related to phoneme difficulty. Consonant clusters were more difficult than consonant singletons; vowels were easiest. Substitution, addition, and compound errors predominated, while distortions and omissions were much less frequent. A subphonemic feature analysis of substitution and distortion errors showed a majority of errors to be close approximations to target phonemes.     

A method for producing foveal retinal exposures in an awake,task-oriented,rhesus monkey

A method for producing retinal exposures from a laser source in an awake, task-oriented S is presented. The technique allows for the measurement of rhesus monkey visual acuity immediately following exposures.     

Some Concomitants of Underachievement at the Elementary School Level

This study compared a group of fourth-grade underachieves with a control group in the areas of peer relationships and measured personality variables. The underachievers were identified by predicting their grade-point average (GPA) from their WISC Verbal Scale IQ score by use of a prediction equation. If the predicted GPA was .8 standard error of estimate above their obtained GPA, the student was identified as an underachiever. This resulted in the identification of 84 male and 34 female underachievers. The results of the investigation indicated that regardless of sex, underachievers are selected less frequently by their peers and have a lower level of personality adjustment.     

Elementary School Counselors in California

The number, school location, academic preparation and experience, and functions and duties of “elementary school counselors” in California were studied. Questionnaires were answered by 175 counselors, 118 elementary school principals, and 312 teachers in schools employing counselors. The number of children in the participating schools was 133,125, or five per cent of all pupils in grades K-8 in the State. Counselors reported that they spent 50 per cent of their time working with pupils, 17 per cent with teachers, 10 per cent with administrators, 12 per cent with parents, and 11 per cent with probation, welfare, and other officials. The counselors and the principals generally agreed on the rank order of importance of the functions of elementary school counselors and on the most important skills and personality characteristics counselors should have. The teachers reported that counselors gave them most help by testing individual pupils, counseling with pupils, helping them with classroom problems, and participating in parent conferences. Elements of an ideal counseling program at the district and school level as well as deficiencies in present programs were described by the respondents.