Strategies of schedule preference in chimpanzees

Two chimpanzees were required to choose between a fixed-ratio schedule and a progressive-ratio schedule which increased in response requirement by 20 responses each time it was chosen. Each choice of the fixed ratio reset the progressive ratio to its minimum value. The fixed-ratio requirement was varied from 40 to 1000 responses. The subjects' preferences for the progressive-ratio schedule varied as a function of the magnitude of the fixed-ratio requirement. An analysis of the preference data indicated that the animals tended to minimize reinforcement cost rather than match the progressive-ratio requirement to the fixed-ratio requirement. In a second experiment, selection of the fixed ratio did not reset the progressive-ratio requirement to its minimum value. In this case, the animals matched the progressive-ratio requirement to the fixed-ratio requirement. A model based on reinforcement cost is presented which permits accurate prediction of preferences between fixed and progressively increasing ratio schedules.     

Works By and About Gabriel Marcel

The bibliography of any contemporary philosopher is destined to be incomplete before it is ever published and the following is no exception. One guiding principle has been used throughout in the preparation of this bibliography: to provide readers with a guide which, though not exhaustive, does provide a good starting point for the serious study of the philosophy of Gabriel Marcel. Those works which contain comprehensive bibliographies to a certain date are listed as such. Roger Troisfontaines' De l'existence à l'être, for example, contains an exhaustive bibliography of Marcel's works to the date of its publication and this fact is noted in the entry below. It is always best to read a philosopher in his original language. For the convenience of the English-speaking reader however, the more important works of Gabriel Marcel are listed in the translation whenever possible. The books and articles written about Gabriel Marcel must obviously be listed in the language in which they appear in print.     

If Counseling is Psychotherapy—What Then?

No counseling, other than the strictly information-giving forms of academic and vocational advisement, can actually be limited to the conscious, rational layers of personality. The deeper levels are reflected in all aspects of behavior, so that concepts of a dichotomy between “counseling” and “psychotherapy” have only the most restricted usefulness. If counseling is necessarily a form of psychotherapy, however specialized, present training methods for counselor candidates are seriously inadequate. Advanced psychological knowledge is needed by counselors, including study of abnormal psychology and diagnostics, as well as of the biological and sociological roots of behavior. Also needed are more rigorous selection methods for counselor candidates, inasmuch as their work unavoidably affects the deeper personality dynamics of their clients, as well as a requirement that those who will counsel others therapeutically should themselves have the experience of being counseled. In view of the increased rigor of this program, if it is undertaken the scale of compensation for counselors should also be considerably increased.     

Counseling with Elementary School Children: An Experimental Study

An attempt was made to assess results of counseling with fourth-grade students, using sociometric status as the criterion. A sociometric device was administered to four fourth-grade classrooms. Students of low sociometric status were randomly assigned by classrooms to one of three treatment conditions: (1) counseling, (2) teacher guidance, and (3) control. When treatment conditions were compared, the evidence seemed to indicate significant differences in the relative frequency with which subjects increased or decreased in sociometric status, that the differences favored the counseling condition, and that these differences persisted over a period of seven months. The possibility of a temporary teacher influence on the sociometric criterion was indicated.     

Soiling and the Anal-Narcissistic Character

The American Journal of Psychoanalysis -     

The Employment Interview Context: Social and Situational Influences on Interviewer Decisions1

The employment interview context is broad and multifaceted, and it includes a number of social, situational, and affective influences which generate from the interviewee, interviewer, nature of the job in question, and interactions among these factors. The employment interview is proposed to be influenced by nonverbal and self-promotion behaviors of the applicant, interviewer training, and the requirements of the job. These variables then influence the intermediate variables of applicant similarity to the interviewer, perceived competence of the applicant, and interviewer affect toward the applicant. The intermediate variables then influence the perceived job suitability of the applicant. The present study tested and found support for modeling the employment interview context and how it affects interviewer decisions. The contributions and limitations of the present study are discussed, in addition to directions for future research.     

INCREASING SELF-DETERMINATION: TEACHING PEOPLE WITH MENTAL RETARDATION TO EVALUATE RESIDENTIAL OPTIONS

The community living preferences of 4 institutionalized adults with mild mental retardation were identified using photographs that depicted a variety of residential characteristics. Individuals then were taught to obtain information regarding their preferences during tours of community group homes, to report that information to their social worker, and to evaluate the homes based on the information obtained. A multiple baseline across participants design showed that all 4 participants substantially increased their skills at asking questions, reporting information, and evaluating homes. The results indicate that people with mental retardation can take an active role in major lifestyle decisions that others have typically made for them.     

Alcohol and Other Drug Use Among African-American Students in a Southern University

This analysis of the circumstances of alcohol and other drug use among African-American students at a predominantly White university indicated that the majority of these students drank in a responsible manner. Other drug use was almost nonexistent. Strong peer disapproval was exhibited toward drug users and alcohol abusers. Counselors dealing with such problems must be cognizant of the multicultural aspects of these behaviors.     

The relationship of specific mental ability measures compared to a general mental ability measure to quality and quantity performance on a clerical job sample

Barrett (1993) presented evidence that mental ability measures designed specifically for the prediction of performance in tasks and jobs have validity at least equal to that of tests of general mental ability, while having advantages such as lower adverse impact. The current study demonstrates that the match in specificity of predictor and criterion can be attained through simple changes in the scoring of standard mental and clerical ability tests. A sample of 51 university students completed a battery of pre-employment tests and, a week or two later, worked on a clerical job sample. The results indicated that quality of performance (number of errors on the task) was best predicted using the number of errors made on the predictor tests while quantity of work was only predicted by the number correct. A test of general mental ability did not correlate with either criterion. These results contradicted the conclusions of Schmidt (1993) that specific ability tests have no incremental validity above a general ability test.Ralph Alexander died before this report was complete. Consequently, the conclusions are those of the first two authors.