Depressed mood: The role of negative thoughts,self-consciousness,and sex role stereotypes

Research typically finds that depression is twice as common among women as among men. This may relate to differences in socialization that result in different emotions, cognitions, and coping reactions. Sex-role stereotypes, employment and marital status, and differential social pressures may also be significant in making women more vulnerable to the development of depression. Women may have less decision-making power, face more adverse life events, and have limited access to resources, which may lead to feelings of helplessness and low self-esteem. Low self-esteem and negative cognitions about the self in turn may be proximal factors predictive of negative mood. Additionally, women may be more prone to ruminative self-focus rather than active coping, a significant risk factor for depression. This study examined individual predictors of depressed mood for each sex, including coping, self-esteem, negative thoughts, self-consciousness (rumination), as well as social factors such as the endorsement of sex-role stereotypes and decision-making power in the family. Results indicated that social factors were not related to depressed mood in either sex, but were related to coping styles and self-esteem. Depressed mood was associated with individual characteristics, such as avoidant coping styles, social anxiety for women, and ruminative self-focus for men. Regression analysis showed that coping through denial and negative thoughts explained depressed mood, and the latter was particularly true for men. These results point to the significance of examining both individual and social factors when attempting to understand depression in men and women.     

Cultural influences on children's understanding of the human body and the concept of life

This study aimed to identify the age by which children begin to demonstrate a biological understanding of the human body and the idea that the purpose of body functioning is to maintain life. The study also explored the influence of education, culturally specific experiences and religion on knowledge acquisition in this domain. Children aged between 4 and 7 years from three different cultural backgrounds (White British, British Muslim, and Pakistani Muslim) were interviewed about the human body and its functioning. At least half of the 4‐ to 5‐year‐olds in each cultural group, and almost all 6‐ to 7‐year‐olds, referred to the maintenance of life when explaining organs' functions and so were classified as ‘life theorizers’. Pakistani Muslim children gave fewer biological responses to questions about organs' functions and the purpose of eating and breathing, but referred to life more than their British counterparts. Irrespective of cultural group, older children understood organ location and function better than younger children. These findings support Jaakkola and Slaughter's (2002, Br. J. Dev. Psychol., 20, 325) view that children's understanding of the body as a ‘life machine’ emerges around the ages of 4–5 years. They also suggest that, despite many similarities in children's ideas cross‐culturally, different educational input and culturally specific experiences influence aspects of their biological understanding.     

When more is not merrier: shared stressful experiences amplify

ABSTRACT

Sharing experiences with others, even without communication, can amplify those experiences. We investigated whether shared stressful experiences amplify. Participants completed the Cold Pressor Task at the same time as a confederate, or while the confederate completed another task. Importantly, participants in the shared (vs. unshared) condition experienced more sensory pain characteristics and reported more stress over time in relation to the task. Importantly, they reported thinking more about the confederate’s thoughts and feelings. This mentalizing sometimes mediated effects, suggesting the task amplified when participants constructed mental representations of others’ CPT experience (e.g. that it hurts) and incorporated it into their own responses.