Cohen’s d needs to be readily interpretable: Comment on Shieh (2013)

Shieh (2013) discussed in detail δ*, a proposed standardized effect size measure for the two-independent-groups design with heteroscedasticity. Shieh focused on inference—notably, the large challenge of calculating confidence intervals for δ*. I contend, however, that the standardizer chosen for δ*, meaning the units in which it is expressed, is appropriate for inference but causes δ* to be inconsistent with conventional Cohen’s d. In addition, δ* depends on the relative sample sizes in the particular experiment and, thus, lacks the generality that is highly desirable if a standardized effect size is to be readily interpretable and also usable in meta-analysis. In the case of heteroscedasticity, I suggest that researchers should choose as standardizer for Cohen’s δ the best available estimate of the SD of an appropriate population, usually the control population, in preference to δ* as discussed by Shieh.     

Embedding spirituality in young children: an inter-generational challenge

This study reports on the inter-generational transmission of faith values to young children (three to six years) from the perspectives of parents, grandparents, and religion teachers. The study was conducted at two religious education centres in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Through a qualitative rapid ethnographic approach (interviews, focus groups, and observations), we explored the practices and challenges in realizing the practice of faith as part of children’s everyday life. Eleven themes elicited which were further reflected in three overarching trends – ‘Building the foundation – on the right path’; ‘Meeting the challenges-embedding faith’; ‘Creating a conducive environment – brining us together’. Key findings revealed that although parents were keenly interested in spiritual development of their young children, they felt challenged by time deficits, multiple priorities, and secularization. Grandparents and religious education teachers were critical of the lack of parental commitment to spiritual development, seeing themselves often becoming surrogate drivers for this imperative. In conclusion, parents requested the institutions to schedule weekly practical classes in prayer and rituals. They also indicated that grandparents’ involvement in religious education activities are enabling and supportive to the parents in nurturing children’s spirituality. As a result there is a clear indication of the role for inter-generational involvements in embedding spirituality in young children.     

Extrapolating human judgments from skip-gram vector representations of word meaning

There is a growing body of research in psychology that attempts to extrapolate human lexical judgments from computational models of semantics. This research can be used to help develop comprehensive norm sets for experimental research, it has applications to large-scale statistical modelling of lexical access and has broad value within natural language processing and sentiment analysis. However, the value of extrapolated human judgments has recently been questioned within psychological research. Of primary concern is the fact that extrapolated judgments may not share the same pattern of statistical relationship with lexical and semantic variables as do actual human judgments; often the error component in extrapolated judgments is not psychologically inert, making such judgments problematic to use for psychological research. We present a new methodology for extrapolating human judgments that partially addresses prior concerns of validity. We use this methodology to extrapolate human judgments of valence, arousal, dominance, and concreteness for 78,286 words. We also provide resources for users to extrapolate these human judgments for three million English words and short phrases. Applications for large sets of extrapolated human judgments are demonstrated and discussed.     

Empathy gaps for social pain: why people underestimate the pain of social suffering

In 5 studies, the authors examined the hypothesis that people have systematically distorted beliefs about the pain of social suffering. By integrating research on empathy gaps for physical pain (Loewenstein, 1996) with social pain theory (MacDonald & Leary, 2005), the authors generated the hypothesis that people generally underestimate the severity of social pain (ostracism, shame, etc.)--a biased judgment that is only corrected when people actively experience social pain for themselves. Using a social exclusion manipulation, Studies 1-4 found that nonexcluded participants consistently underestimated the severity of social pain compared with excluded participants, who had a heightened appreciation for social pain. This empathy gap for social pain occurred when participants evaluated both the pain of others (interpersonal empathy gap) as well as the pain participants themselves experienced in the past (intrapersonal empathy gap). The authors argue that beliefs about social pain are important because they govern how people react to socially distressing events. In Study 5, middle school teachers were asked to evaluate policies regarding emotional bullying at school. This revealed that actively experiencing social pain heightened the estimated pain of emotional bullying, which in turn led teachers to recommend both more comprehensive treatment for bullied students and greater punishment for students who bully.     

Attachment avoidance and feelings of connection in social interaction

Individuals high in attachment avoidance claim to be indifferent to the opinions of others. Carvallo and Gabriel (2006) showed that dismissive avoidants who received positive social feedback reported higher levels of positive affect and state self-esteem than dismissives in control conditions. Their data suggest that avoidant individuals are sensitive to acceptance cues, despite avoidants' claims to the contrary. However, the affect and self-esteem effects could represent feelings of hubristic pride (and thus superiority) rather than connection (and thus belongingness). In the current study, participants were randomly assigned to interact with either a highly positive or mildly negative research confederate. Low avoidant individuals felt more connected with the positive than negative confederate, but this effect of experimental condition was even stronger for those high in avoidance. These findings affirm that avoidantly attached invidividuals' feelings of belonging are sensitive to the positivity of social conditions, supporting the universality of the need to belong.     

The Logical Structure of Scientific Explanation and Prediction: Planetary Orbits in a Sun’s Gravitational Field

We present a logically detailed case-study of explanation and prediction in Newtonian mechanics. The case in question is that of a planet’s elliptical orbit in the Sun’s gravitational field. Care is taken to distinguish the respective contributions of the mathematics that is being applied, and of the empirical hypotheses that receive a mathematical formulation. This enables one to appreciate how in this case the overall logical structure of scientific explanation and prediction is exactly in accordance with the hypotheticodeductive model.     

Parenting programmes for parents of children and young people with behavioural difficulties

Children and young people exhibiting behavioural difficulties present a major challenge not only to parents but also to education and health professionals and to society as a whole. In this paper, I shall address some key issues regarding these parenting programmes, based particularly on a programme of research over 13 years in the Centre for Educational Development, Appraisal and Research at the University of Warwick. This has comprised large‐scale studies across all areas of England, both programmes targeted at parents whose children are presenting or at risk of developing behavioural difficulties: the Parenting Early Intervention Pathfinder and Parenting Early Intervention Programme; and universal programmes aimed at all parents, as a positive contribution to behavioural development across the population: the CANparent trial. All were funded by the Department for Education plus the continuation of the CANparent trial was funded by the Department of Health. In addition, I consider studies that have built on this research to examine the use of parenting programmes with parents of children and young people with special educational needs; and also the effectiveness of programmes during sustained implementation, beyond formal trials and similar research initiatives, that is, as day‐to‐day practice. I show that well‐constructed parenting programmes that are acceptable to parents are effective, that these positive effects on parents can remain over time, and also that the positive effects found in well‐organised trials can be maintained when programmes are delivered by community services as part of their normal practice.     

Mortality salience reduces attentional bias for fear-relevant animals

This research investigated the influence of reminders of mortality on biased attention for fear-relevant animals across 2 studies. In each study, participants completed a baseline dot-probe test of attention to fear-relevant animals (snakes and spiders). After random assignment, participants completed a mortality salience or control writing task (about watching television in Study 1 and about writing an important exam in Study 2). Finally, participants completed the dot-probe measure a second time. In both studies, those in the mortality salience condition showed a significant reduction in bias for fear-relevant animals from baseline to post-manipulation, whereas no change was found for those in the control conditions. These data suggest that the previously demonstrated lack of emotional response to mortality salience may, in part, result from the avoidance of fear-relevant stimuli.