Strategies used by children when solving simple subtractions

Ten children, 9–11 years old, solved all subtraction problems in the form of M?N=…, where 0 ? M ? 13, 0 ? N ? 13 and M ? N. The solution times were analysed and used for the formulation of a process model for subtraction. The model involves memory processes on two different levels, called reproductive and reconstructive respectively. When M=N, N=1, and M=2N the answers were quickly retrieved in reproductive memory processes. The reconstructive processes were found to be analogous to one of two counting procedures, viz. counting up and counting down. In general, the counting process starts either on N (when M < 2N) and counts up to reach the answer, or on M (when M > 2N) and counts down to reach the answer. This may reflect an effort to minimize the number of steps to be counted. However, when M > 10 and N < 10 a problem is always solved in a decrementing counting process. When M=10 many subtractions are solved in a reproductive memory process and the number 10 is also important as a point of reference for solving subtractions when M > 10 and N < 10.     

On the role of otoliths and semicircular canals in spatial orientation: Dynamics of the visually perceived eye level during gondola centrifugation

The visually perceived eye level (VPEL) was measured during gondola centrifugation. Subjects (N = 11) were seated upright, facing motion in a swing-out gondola The head was adjusted so that Reid's baseline was tilted 10 degrees anterior end up. The subjects were requested to adjust the position of a small luminous dot so that it was perceived as gravitationally at eye level. In the 1-g environment, the VPEL was a few degrees below the true gravitational eye level (M = -1.75 degrees, SD = 1.90 degrees). After rapid acceleration of the centrifuge to 2 G (vectorial sum of the earth gravity force and the centrifugal force), there was an exponentially increasing depression of the VPEL. The initial value was -6.4 degrees +/- 5.2 degrees. During 10 min at 2 G, the VPEL approached an asymptotic value of -24.8 degrees +/- 5.4 degrees. The time constant showed a large interindividual variability, ranging from 59 to 1,000 sec (M = 261 sec, median = 147 sec). The findings are discussed, taking into consideration otolith-semicircular-canal interaction, as well as memory functions of the vestibular system.     

A SUPPLEMENT TO FREUD'S CASE HISTORY OF “FRAU EMMY v.N.” IN STUDIES ON HYSTERIA 1895

Speech, the associating stream of verbalizations, is the mode of communication par excellance in psychoanalysis. Authoritative literature of the psychoanalytic situation (Stone, 1961) and technique (Greenson, 1967) hardly mention the question of analysis of non-verbal behavior. Characteristically we have to search rather far back in time to unearth the literature in this field.     

Cognitive bias and attitude distortion of a priority decision

Cognitive Processing - The resource saving bias is a cognitive bias describing how resource savings from improvements of high-productivity units are overestimated compared to improvements of less...