Social Value Orientation Moderates the Effects of Intuition versus Reflection on Responses to Unfair Ultimatum Offers

We investigated whether social value orientation (SVO) moderates the effects of intuitive versus reflective information processing on responses to unfair offers. We measured SVO one week prior to an ultimatum game experiment in which participants had to accept or reject a series of 10 ultimatum offers including very low (unfair) ones. Before making these decisions, participants mentally contrasted their individual goals with the obstacle of pondering at length or acting in a hasty way; then they made the plan to adopt an intuitive or a reflective mode of processing (intuitive and reflective condition, respectively), or made no such plans (control condition). Participants with rather high (prosocial) SVO scores were more likely to accept unfair offers in the reflective than the intuitive condition. This effect also evinced for a subset of selfish individuals; however, the majority with rather low (selfish) scores made similar decisions in both conditions. This pattern of results suggests that SVO moderates the effects of intuitive versus reflective modes of processing on responses to low ultimatum offers. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Increasing the distance of an external focus of attention enhances learning

Previous studies (e.g., Wulf, H?ss, & Prinz, 1998) have shown that motor learning can be enhanced by directing performers' attention to the effects of their movements ("external focus"), rather than to the body movements producing the effect ("internal focus"). The purpose of the present study was to test the hypothesis that increasing the distance between the body and the action effects might further enhance the learning advantages associated with an external focus of attention. The distance of the external effect was manipulated by instructing three groups of participants learning to balance on a stabilometer to focus on markers attached to the platform located at different distances from their feet. Specifically, two groups were to focus on distant markers on the outside ("far-outside") or inside ("far-inside") of the platform, respectively, whereas another group was instructed to focus on markers close to their feet ("near"). In a retention test administered after two days of practice, all three external-focus groups showed generally more effective balance learning than an internal-focus control group. In addition, the far-outside and far-inside groups demonstrated similar performances, and both were more effective than the near group. Furthermore, the far-outside and far-inside groups showed higher-frequency movement adjustments than the near group. These results suggest that focusing on more distant effects results in enhanced learning by promoting the utilization of more natural control mechanisms. The findings are in line with a "constrained action" hypothesis that accounts for the relatively poorer learning associated with an attentional focus directed towards effects in close proximity to the body, or towards the body itself.     

Schema theory: a critical appraisal and reevaluation

The authors critically review a number of the constructs and associated predictions proposed in schema theory (R. A. Schmidt, 1975). The authors propose that new control and learning theories should include a reformulated (a) notion of a generalized motor program that is not based on motor program but still accounts for the strong tendency for responses to maintain their relative characteristics; (b) mechanism or processes whereby an abstract movement structure based on proportional principles (e.g., relative timing, relative force) is developed through practice; and (c) explanation for parameter learning that accounts for the benefits of parameter variability but also considers how variability is scheduled. Furthermore, they also propose that new theories of motor learning must be able to account for the consistent findings spawned as a result of the schema theory proposal and must not be simply discounted because of some disfavor with the motor program notion, in general, or schema theory, more specifically.     

Canceling out both the real and the spectral lines

Neglect patients typically show motor perseveration while canceling targets on the ipsilesional side. This behavior can be influenced by the presence vs. absence of targets on the (neglected) contralesional side (). As alternative explanations, the authors proposed (i) directional hypokinesia--the patient cannot perform reaching movements towards detected left-sided targets, and thus carries on canceling on the right side, and (ii) allochiria--the patient misperceives left-sided targets as located on the right side, and cancels them there. We report here data from a patient (EZ) that might confirm the second hypothesis. EZ was presented with 19 displays in which the number and position of cancellation targets on both sides were varied systematically. EZ showed motor perseveration while canceling, but this tendency did not vary across conditions. Interestingly though, EZ also drew cancellation marks in the empty space between the ipsilesional targets, and this phenomenon was significantly more intense when there were more targets on the neglected side. As EZ's comments suggested, such a behavior might reflect the attempt to cancel out delusional targets. Our speculation is that those objects were generated by allochiria.     

Attentional focus on supra-postural tasks affects postural control

We examined whether the attentional focus adopted on a supra-postural task has an influence on postural control. Similar to Riley, Stoffregen, Grocki, and Turvey (Human Movement Science 18 (1999) 795), participants were instructed to stand still while lightly touching a loosely hanging sheet with their fingertips. However, instructions varied slightly under two conditions: Participants were either asked to minimize movements of the finger (internal focus) or to minimize movements of the sheet (external focus). In contrast to Riley et al.'s findings, both touch conditions resulted in increased postural sway, compared to a baseline condition (no touch). However, in line with previous findings (e.g., Wulf, McNevin, & Shea, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 54A (2001) 1143), frequency of responding (fast Fourier transformation) was greater under the external focus condition, compared to both internal focus and baseline conditions. The findings indicate improved static balance responses under external focus conditions and compromised static balance response under internal focus conditions.     

„Die Botschaft hör ich wohl…“

From an evolutionary standpoint language developes from music and sounds. On grounds of that theory the role of intonation, timbre, volume and rhythm in speaking is considered as well as the messages that are transmitted beyond the lexical-semantic level primarily on the phonetic level. The vocal apparatus as a generator of tones, vibrations and rhythm is connected to the body as a whole and functions as a ?resonance body‘. Thereby, it gives the sound, when speaking or listening, a specific quality and meaning. That principle of giving and developing meaning in a sensory way exists already in the communication between mother and child before birth. Besides the secondary linguistical representations it remains lifelong of central importance in the generation and passing on of implicit knowledge. A psychoanalytic treatment is described as an example on how the phonetic level in speech influences the process and advances of therapy.