RELATIONSHIP OF NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR TO THE SOCIAL PENETRATION PROCESS1

Theoretical formulations concerning the relationship of nonverbal behavior to the social penetration processes, i.e., the development of interpersonal relations (Altman & Taylor, 1973) were examined via acted, videotaped conversations in which subjects role played good friends (GF) or casual acquaintances (CA) discussing intimate (I) or nonintimate (NI) topics. The methodological approach adopted for this study was unique in three ways. First, patterns of nonverbal behavior rather than single behaviors were the primary units of analysis. Second, data were collected during dynamic, ongoing conversations rather than from static poses or photographs. Finally, the use of a repeated measures design permitted evaluation of the importance of individual differences. Pattern analyses generally confirmed predictions: the GF by NI cell was characterized by nonverbal behavior patterns indicative of relaxation, while tense behavior patterns occurred in the CA by I cell.     

SOCIAL JUSTICE

Social justice (which includes retributive and distributive justice) is most clearly satisfied by a system of Divine rewards and punishments: an omnipotent, omniscient, perfectly just Being could determine in each case how much effort was made and effect the appropriate distribution of rewards and punishments. A correct understanding of social justice naturally leads us to suppose that there is an afterlife, a God, a free choice — though it is logically possible at least that social justice could be satisfied in some future (very advanced) human society. There will still be those who have their doubts about the correctness of any view according to which justice cannot be attained by fallible creatures who have an incomplete knowledge of one another's behaviour. But, surely, these doubts are not sufficient to discredit my view. There is no a priori reason for rejecting such a view. There is nothing about our use of the term ‘justice’ and its cognates which implies that such a view is mistaken. (Otherwise the statement “There is no justice in this world’ would be meaningless.) To the contrary, there are widely held religious views, Christian as well as non-Christian, which take this view quite seriously. If there is no a priori reason for rejecting this view, then there must be some independent reason for rejecting it. In other words, we need some independent reasons for believing that social justice can be attained by fallible creatures with limited knowledge. The mere fact that we might feel uncomfortable with my theory is not reason enough to reject it. Finally, those who do experience this discomfort might ask themselves whether such discomfort stems from their moral experience or whether they are simply intent on finding justice in imperfect human institutions.     

PREDICTING THE SALARY SATISFACTION OF EXEMPT EMPLOYEES

This study examined the degree to which salary satisfaction can be predicted using company-maintained information commonly available to salary administrators. Predictors included years of continuous service, educational level, annual performance rating, an estimate of career potential, monthly salary, a measure of the most recent salary increase, and employee gender. A variety of hypotheses derived from Lawler's (1971) model of pay satisfaction also were tested, focusing on the relative contribution of perceived performance, perceived job demands, certain non-monetary outcomes, and external and internal pay equity. The research utilized a sample of managerial, professional, and technical employees from a large national oil company. The results suggest that without the inclusion of a variety of employee perceptions, only a small proportion of pay satisfaction can be accounted for, with salary and sex representing the primary objective predictors. Perceived performance, perceptions regarding supervision, advancement opportunity, and the company's benefit package, and both external and internal pay equity, were related to pay satisfaction in the direction predicted by Lawler's model. The implications of not being able to estimate pay system perceptions using company-maintained sources of information are discussed along with the results supporting certain key components of Lawler's model of pay satisfaction.     

Steps Toward a Science of Free Will

A conceptual confusion might lie at the heart of the free will-determinism controversy. Reconceptualizing the issue by positing two independent bipolar dimensions (determinism versus nondeterminism and self-determination versus nonagentic mechanism), instead of the single free will versus determinism dimension, seems to create the conceptual space for belief in both free will and determinism. A number of recent agentic theories of human action, and a growing body of research with humans, suggest the joint action of agentic self-determination and nonagentic causation in the genesis of human behavior. Implications for counselors are offered.     

Perfectionism and Creative Strivings

Samples of gifted children in Louisiana (N = 44) and Connecticut (N = 34) were administered the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and the Khatena‐Torrance Creative Perception Inventory (KTCPI). The KTCPI consisted of two biographical measures, the Something About Myself (SAM) and What Kind of Person Are You (WKOPAY) subtests. The results for the WKOPAY were generally consistent with predictions. Higher scores on the scales of the MPS associated with neurotic perfectionism, the Overall MPS, Doubts About Actions (D), Organization (O), and Parental Criticism (PC), were associated with lower scores on the WKOPAY. Inconsistent with predictions, the Concern over Mistakes (CM) and Personal Standards (PS) scales of the MPS were not significantly correlated with the WKOPAY. Results for the SAM were inconsistent with predictions, with the exception of the significant positive correlation between the PS scale and the SAM.     

Racial/Ethnic Differences in Religious Involvement in a Multi-Ethnic Cohort of Midlife Women

We examined racial/ethnic differences in five measures of religious involvement (worship attendance, religious social support, importance of faith, comfort from religion, and frequency of prayer or meditation) among 2,690 women, age 42–52 years, participating in the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN). The women reported five racial/ethnic identifications: white, African American, Hispanic, Japanese, and Chinese. A large proportion of the Asian and Hispanic women were born outside the United States (Japanese 48 percent, Chinese 69.5 percent, Hispanic 89.1 percent). African-American and Hispanic women reported the highest levels of religious involvement. White and Japanese women reported similar levels of involvement for four measures. Compared to the white women, the Chinese women reported similar levels of worship attendance and religious social support, but lower levels for the other three measures. These racial/ethnic differences were not explained by differences in religious preference, acculturation, or sociodemographic factors. With the exception of worship attendance, in adjusted models, measures of acculturation were not significantly associated with religious involvement .