阿尔都塞的多元决定与结构因果观

在阿尔都塞的马克思著作研究中,多元决定和结构因果性这两个概念是十分重要的。本文将通过考察阿尔都塞对这两个概念在理解马克思的“方法论”上的价值和应用的论述,来解释这两个概念。但这种研究方法并不认为在《资本论》或其他著作中,马克思实际上有一种具体的或明确的方法论。对我们来说,马克思主义中是否有方法论仍然是一个未解决的问题。对于任何的马克思方法论的探讨,这些概念都是重要的。本文的任务之一就是表明,马克思在政治经济学中的贡献和“理论革命”不能简单地用方法论来描绘。马克思对黑格尔的辩证法思     

Task-dependent compensatory responses to perturbations applied during rhythmic movements in humans

Modulation of the responses to perturbation applied during different phases of three rhythmic movements in humans-running, cycling, and hopping-was studied. The perturbation was an electrical stimulus. The results showed gating and modulation of the responses in both ipsi- and contralateral limb muscles. The responses during running and cycling were only excitatory in nature, while during hopping an inhibitory response was observed. These responses were not correlated with the normal activity during the movement. The latency of the response in general was not altered for different stimulation phases. The alterations in the step cycle demonstrated overt behavioral changes due to the responses. There were differences between the responses observed during these movements and walking. In running, the major adaptation to perturbations appears to be in the contralateral side as seen in the changes in the step cycle. During cycling (except for one phase) and hopping, the same set of muscles was activated in response to perturbation. This represents a simplifying strategy in response organization. The dependency of the response on the task characteristics, postural stability requirement, and external constraints imposed on the subject is discussed. These studies provide insights into task-dependent strategies adopted by the nervous system to meet unexpected perturbation during rhythmic movements in humans.     

Variable-interval schedules of timeout from avoidance

Rats were trained on concurrent schedules in which pressing one lever postponed shock and pressing the other occasionally produced a 2-min timeout during which the shock-postponement schedule was suspended and its correlated stimuli were removed. Throughout, the shock-postponement schedule maintained proficient levels of avoidance. Nevertheless, in Experiment 1 responding on the timeout lever was established rapidly, was maintained at stable levels on variable-interval schedules, was extinguished by withholding timeout, was reestablished when timeout was reintroduced, and was brought under discriminative control with a multiple variable-interval extinction schedule of timeout. These results are in contrast with Verhave's (1962) conclusion that timeout is an ineffective reinforcer when presented to rats on intermittent schedules. In Experiment 2 the consequence of responding on the timeout lever was altered so that the shock-postponement schedule remained in effect even though the stimulus conditions associated with timeout were produced for 2 min. Responding extinguished, indicating that suspension of the shock-postponement schedule, not stimulus change, was the source of reinforcement. By establishing the reinforcing efficacy of timeout with standard variable-interval schedules, these experiments illustrate a procedure for studying negative reinforcement in the same way as positive reinforcement.     

目的、意向和意识

本文提出了一个意向性目标搜寻的计算机模型,它有两个部分,静态部分包括一个目标表征和到达这个目标的程序。动态部分是一个感觉输入、中间信息加工,行为输出的重复的反馈循环。人类意向必然伴有意识,但机器人则可能无意识而有意向。 利用目标搜寻系统机器人模型,我们对目标搜寻系统的目的连续统下了定义;这个连续统从简单的直接反应系统一直到意向性系统。对这个目的连续统有两种传统的解释:一是柏拉图、亚里士多德和普罗提诺的终极原因理论,二是希腊原子论者和现代进化生物学家的还原主义学说。本文评价了这些学说。 本文考察了几种类型的意识机能,提出了以自动机为依据的意识理论,比较了人类和计算机。从计算机结构的角度来看,人类意识是一类特殊的计算机控制系统。     

攻击的社会性认知学习的调节

这项研究探索了小学儿童的攻击与影响儿童是否采取攻击行为的社会认知的两个等级的联系.给攻击性和非攻击性的儿童(平均年龄为11.3岁)提供二个调查表,让他们进行回答.一个调查表是测量儿童对自己进行攻击的能力及相应的行为的认识(即自我实力的认识),而另一个调查表则测量儿童对攻击性行为会得到的奖励和惩罚的后果的认识.     

对算术和阅读中的成就与态度的长远预见

 这项纵向研究的目的在于了解:(1)在幼儿园里所提供的认知任务对儿童的学业成就的预见性;(2)教师和母亲对儿童的一般认知能力和实际成就的评价对于学业态度的预言性.在进入幼儿园以前对儿童进行初试,255名幼儿园儿童被追踪到一、二、三、五、十年级,认知任务中的一个分项目与中学成就分数保持着相关,特别是在阅读方面.十年级儿童的能力的自我概念、成功期望、成功的价值以及对任务难度的认识都表现出性别和学习内容范围的影响.男孩往往偏爱算术,而女孩则更喜欢阅读.儿童的学业态度与母亲对他的早期评价及实际成就分数都有相关,女孩尤为如此.母亲的评价与女孩对算术的态度有正相关.在全部11个年龄时期中都存在着性别差异.     

性别标定和性别类型行为的选择

本研究采用性别标定作业,测验了43名出生21个月到40个月的儿童辨别男女孩和男女成人图片的能力,并在通常按性别类型分的三种行为(选择玩具、攻击性和同龄游戏伙伴的选择)上对通过性别作业的儿童(平均年龄30个月)与未通过性别作业的儿童(平均年龄26个月)进行了比较.本研究预测,通过了性别作业的儿童会选择同性伙伴和更有性别特点的玩具,通过了性别作业的女孩攻击性会减弱,男孩则没有变化.但结果只证实了攻击性和选择同龄伙伴的预测,选择玩具的预测则没有得到证实.     

儿童的模仿和语言发展

某些关于儿童语言获得研究者认为,模仿与言语获得没有关系(Slobin,1967).早在六十年代,不少人研究了儿童直接模仿成人句子的效果(Brown,Bellugi,1964;Cazden1965).他们认为,尽管模仿在儿童语音、新词语的获得和习惯语表达方面起着重要作用,但是,并不能说明模仿在儿童句法获得中起作用.Slobin(1967)指出,在某种情况下,儿童能对成人的句子正确地模仿,只是能模仿的这些句子比儿童自发的句子(Spontaneous sentences)稍长或稍复杂些.我们认为,这种模仿能加强儿童的句法能力,因此有利于儿童下一阶段句法能力的发展.近些年来,Bloom,Hood和Lightbown(1974)提供了儿童早期言语发展的证据,表明有模仿倾向的儿童似乎是通过模仿来掌握新的语义句法关系以及新的词汇、习语.有模仿倾向的儿童在语气材料和上下文知识的处理中是积极的.这些研究涉及到句法,也涉及到发展方面的作用.     

《物性论》

罗素说过,“几乎没有任何别的大诗人要等待这么久的时间才为人所认识到,但是到了近代,他的优异性差不多已是普遍公认的。”这位大诗人便是卢克莱修(约公元前99年—55年)。他的哲学巨著《物性论》在写成之后,整整湮没了一千余年,直到1473年才被发掘出来。而且在中世纪,它仅仅存下了一份手稿。该书用诗歌体裁著成,共六卷,七千余行。马克思曾据之称赞卢克莱修是“真正罗马的史诗诗人”,是“朝气蓬勃的,大胆的、富有诗意的世界主宰者”。