关于人的科学系统

人的问题(确切地说,是一种问题的综合)在现代科学知识中日益被提到首位,是与其发展的前途有关的。“人”的现象的独一无二性,是以自然界和社会的规律的统一性为特征的,这就给人创造了作为科学研究的客体的特殊地位。在这一领域里,把社会科学、自然科学和部分技术科学的兴趣紧密地结合在一起。安纳耶夫已令人信服地指出了这一点。用社会科学来研究,人是任何一个社会系统的主要组成部分,是社会的质的基本的     

逻辑与修辞

在自然语言中,不像在人工语言中那样,符号的单义性是所有情况下的一个必要条件。因此,符号的重新解释总是可能的,其结果,避免了通过形式标准来对论点是真还是假作一次了结的判定。法学和神学提供了大量的情况,由于种种原因,对法律和宗教的条文逐字解释是不能接受的。一个形式逻辑系统包括演绎的规则,它们使移转从前提到结论的性质(真值、概率、模态)成为可能。然而,前提具有的该性质的根据在哪里?经典     

工效学:达到较好工作环境的工具

本文介绍了如何以简便,低成本为原则,运用工效学知识,来改善工人的工作条件,提高劳动生产率。文中也提到了实际运用的工效学检查表。     

《托兰斯创造性思维测验》(TTCT)的测试和中美学生的跨文化比较

本研究采用目前广泛使用的《Torrance创造性思维测验》(TTCT),对上海小学四年级到高中三年级的1937名学生进行了试测,结果表明,上海学生的创造性思维水平,随年级的上升,在词汇方面表现出阶梯上升的趋势;在图画方面呈现为波浪形的趋势,与美国学生相比较,研究得出:在词汇分测验上两国学生之间没有显著差异,只是美国学生在10年级达到峰值,而后则有所下降,呈倒U形;在图画分测验上,美国学生在四项指标上远高出上海学生,然而,两国学生都存在类似的升—降—波动的发展趋势。     

禅与日本人的审美意识

日本人的审美意识中包含着禅宗影响,这已成为一种国际性观念。而首先意识到这一点并因此而出名的,是美国上世纪末来到日本的美术史家阿奈斯特·费诺罗萨,他写了《东洋美术史纲》;此外尚有本世纪初鼓吹“重新发现日本美”的德国建筑学家布鲁诺·托特。     

Evidence for an error deadzone in compensatory tracking

Humans and monkeys show intermittent arm movements while tracking moving targets. This intermittency has been explained by postulating either a psychological refractory period after each movement and/or an error deadzone, an area surrounding the target within which movements are not initiated. We present a technique to detect and quantify the size of this deadzone, using a compensatory tracking paradigm that distinguishes it from a psychological refractory period. An artificial deadzone of variable size was added around a visual target displayed on a computer screen. While the subject was within this area, he received visual feedback that showed him to be directly on target. The presence of this artificial deadzone could affect tracking performance only if it exceeded the size of his intrinsic deadzone. Therefore, the size of artificial deadzone at which performance began to be affected revealed the size of the intrinsic deadzone. Measured at the subjects' eye, the deadzone was found to vary between 0.06 and 0.38 degrees, depending on the tracking task and viewing conditions; on the screen, this range was 1.3 mm to 3.3 mm. It increased with increasing speed of the target, with increasing viewing distance, and when the amplitude of the movement required was reduced. However, the deadzone size was not significantly correlated with the subjects' level of performance. We conclude that an intrinsic deadzone exists during compensatory tracking, and we suggest that its size is set by a cognitive process not simply related to the difficulty of the tracking task.     

Effects of Pointing Rate and Availability of Visual Feedback on Visual and Proprioceptive Components of Prism Adaptation

While looking through laterally displacing prisms, subjects pointed 60 times straight ahead of their nose at a rate of one complete movement every 2 or 3 s, with visual feedback available early in the pointing movement or delayed until the end of the movement. Sagittal pointing was paced such that movement speed covaried with pointing rate. Aftereffect measures (obtained after every 10 pointing trials) showed that when the limb became visible early in a pointing movement, proprioceptive adaptation was greater than visual, but when visual feedback was delayed until the end of the movement, the reverse was true. This effect occurred only with the 3-s pointing rate, however. With the 2-s pointing rate, adaptation was predominately proprioceptive in nature, regardless of feedback availability. Independent of the availability of visual feedback, visual adaptation developed more quickly with 3-s pointing, whereas proprioceptive adaptation developed more rapidly with 2-s pointing. These results are discussed in terms of a model of perceptual-motor organization in which the direction of coordinative (guidance) linkage between eye-head (visual) and hand-head (proprioceptive) systems (and consequently the locus of discordance registration and adaptive recalibration) is determined jointly by pointing rate and feedback availability. An additional effect of pointing rate is to determine the rate of discordant inputs. Maximal adaptive recalibration occurs when the input (pointing) rate matches the time constant of the adaptive encoder in the guided system.     

Altruism in surgery of AIDS patients

There is usually a long period of time between infection with the AIDS virus and manifestation of symptoms. Asymptomatic patients often would benefit from elective surgery for diseases such as arthritis which are unrelated to their infection. The surgeons' decisions to accept the risks to themselves, their spouses, and their operating teams in order to relieve pain and suffering appear to be based upon two covenants; one concerns their role within the doctor-patient relationship, and the other concerns their relationship to what they see as the ultimate meaning in life.     

The autoshaping procedure as a residual block clock

In the first experiment, 4 pigeons were each presented with a recurring sequence of four key colors followed by the delivery of grain (block clock). Once the rate of pecking had stabilized, three of the colors were replaced, during different series of sessions, by a darkening of the key. The rate of pecking was reduced within those segments of the interval between deliveries of food during which the key was dark; when the key was dark during the final portion of the interval, rates were reduced throughout the entire interval. In the second experiment, 3 new pigeons were exposed to a different sequence of colors, and the final stimulus was replaced in successive conditions by a novel color, a darkened key, and a restoration of the original color. The data indicated that darkening the key had a more severe, more extensive, and more persistent effect than did a mere change in color. These results suggest that it may be fruitful to conceptualize the autoshaping procedure as a special version of the block clock in which pecking is suppressed throughout the greater part of the interval by darkening the key. In the final condition, the same stimulus appeared in each of the last three portions of the interval. The rate of pecking was lower during the last two portions than when distinctive colors were presented, with the peak rate now appearing in the fifth of seven equal temporal components.