自我评论

三、思想进程正象我提及的那样，早在高中学习时就已阅读了德·桑克蒂斯的著作，它们给我印象深刻，甚至当我为学校撰写文学批评文章时也深受影响。但假如那时我已充分理解德·桑克蒂斯的思想，即运用他阐述这一思想并使它清楚明晰的丰富经验，把握其思想的基本观念和每个个别判断的话，那我就成了天生的魔鬼，一位垂老的青年，或甚至就是德·桑克蒂斯本人，返老还童的德·桑克蒂斯。事实上我刚刚抓住德·桑克蒂斯的某些特征，尤其是但相当浮浅地把握这一主导思想：艺术不是深思和逻辑的产物，也不是技巧的成果，而是自发的纯粹的幻想形式。…     

为什么自由要求平等

资本主义者与社会主义者之间对比的主要通常诉诸这样的方式：资本主义者把自由理想当做最终的政治理想，他们认为，由此可以得出结论说，只能证明一种最低限度的或守夜人式的状态是合理的；而社会主义者把平等理想做为最终的政治理想，他们认为，由此可以得出结论说，只能证明生产方式社会化的状态是合理的。但是资本主义者在这方面是倾向于赞同社会主义者的，即当平等理想被用社会主义者喜爱的方式加以解释时，它就证明是一种合理的社会主义状态。资本主义者只是承认这种对平等理想的社会主义解释在道德上是有争论的。如果资本主义者自己的…     

Dominance, leadership, and aggression: animal behavior studies during the Second World War

During the decade surrounding the Second World War, an extensive literature on the biological and psychological basis of aggression surfaced in America, a literature that in general emphasized the significance of learning and environment in the origins of aggressive behavior. Focusing on the animal behavior research of Warder Clyde Allee and John Paul Scott, this paper examines the complex interplay among conceptual, institutional, and societal forces that created and shaped a discourse on the subjects of aggression, dominance, and leadership within the context of World War II. The distinctions made between sexual and social dominance during this period, distinctions accentuated by the threat of totalitarianism abroad, and the varying ways that interpretations of behavior could be negotiated attests to the multiplicity of interactions that influence the development of scientific research.     

On separability of and interference between tracking dimensions in dual-axis tracking

Time-shared tasks may conceivably be separable or integral. A case in which the question of separability seems quite relevant is dual-axis tracking. To test the interaction between tracking dimensions, we first studied whether they interfere with each other. Practiced subjects performed tracking on one or two axes, with or without feedback indicators and with or without a requirement to allocate resources unevenly between axes. They also performed with or without a concurrent binary classification of visually presented digits which were presented within a moving square that served as the target for tracking. Small deficits were found in the performance of both tracking and digit classification when performed together. However, the conditions of tracking did not have a discernible effect on either tracking or digit classification. Hence, the introduction of a second tracking axis probably does not have harmful consequences either on tracking itself or on any other task time-shared with tracking. Further studies were conducted to examine whether the absence of an effect of number of tracking axes is dues to their integrality. Ordinary position tracking was paired either with another similar task on the other axis or with a novel sort of tracking in which subjects had to continually match sizes of moving rectangles. Tasks were paired under both divided-attention and focused-attention instructions. No interference on position tracking was observed even when the types of task on the two axes differed, and no other evidence for integrality of the homogeneous task pairs was found.     

Factor analyses of two 'attitude toward gender role' questionnaire

Two questionnaires which purport to assess attitudes toward gender role, the Maferr Inventory of Feminine Values and the Sex Stereotype Questionnaire, were submitted to a factor analysis. While each analysis of the five response set items yielded interpretable factors with unequivocal item scores, the obtained factors are not consistent with the a priori assignment of items to "groupings" suggested by the manuals for these instruments. The implications of using questionnaires with questionable psychometric properties is discussed.     

The acquisition of maximal isometric plantar flexor strength: a force-time curve analysis

A paradigm involving the static force-time curve was used to study the mechanisms through which gains in maximal isometric strength are achieved during repeated testing. Twelve males performed three maximal contractions of the plantar flexors on each of six test days. Each contraction was executed as rapidly as possible, with the force recorded on a rapidly moving pen recorder. Although highly significant increases in maximal plantar flexor strength occurred over the six days, no changes were seen in the maximal rate of tension development. However, assessment of the amount of force reached at absolute time intervals revealed that more force was attained at the early time intervals on the first few days of testing than on the later days, indicating a distinct change in the shape of the static force-time curve. Several neural mechanisms are suggested to explain the alteration in shape of the static force-time curve which accompanies the acquisition of maximal strength.     

The control of switching into blackout during extinction

During the extinction component of a multiple variable-interval extinction schedule, four pigeons learned to peck a second key that switched off the keylights. Two experiments attempted to isolate the events that control this behavior. In the first experiment, switching into blackout was equally maintained when switches were restricted to the first minute as when they were restricted to the last minute of the extinction component. When switches could be emitted in the first and last minutes, they occurred more frequently in the first. Restricting switching to the first minute of each component and eliminating the blackout between components had no effect on switching. In the second experiment, when the stimulus correlated with extinction was omitted, switching decreased slightly. Omission of both multiple schedule stimuli decreased the switching rate, but switching was still maintained. Food reinforcement was then omitted and switching by two birds increased. Switching ceased when blackout was no longer the consequence of pecking the switching key. It was concluded that switching was not controlled by the similarity of the blackouts produced by the switching key and those that occurred between components; nor was it maintained by the temporal proximity of switching responses to the onset of the reinforced component. Finally, switching did not appear to be controlled by the main-key stimuli correlated with the components of the multiple schedule.     

The effects of mastery criteria and assignment length on college student test performance

This study analyzed the function of two components of a personalized instruction course -mastery criteria for passing a test and assignment length. A high mastery criterion (100% correct) and short assignments produced better test performance than either a low mastery criterion (60% correct) or long assignments (four short assignments combined) on both study question items that students had in their possession and probe items that were not available to students in advance.