The effect of psychological stress and tolerance of ambiguity on stereotypic attributions

Abstract Recent research on the relationship between cognition and affect suggests the prediction that psychological stress encourages stereotyping. Yet the empirical evidence regarding this proposition is inconclusive. This study examined the effect of stress on the perception of illusory correlations, which comprise a particular manifestation of stereotypic attributions, and the moderating role of tolerance of ambiguity. It was predicted, specifically, that the effect of stress on stereotyping will be more pronounced in persons who have a low tolerance of ambiguity than in persons tolerating ambiguity, who generally experience less stress. An Illusory Correlation Inventory and a Tolerance of Ambiguity scale were administered to a group of 46 Airforce cadets, during a particularly stressful phase of flight training, and to a comparable group of 39 cadets, during a relatively relaxed period in the course of training. As expected, stress heightened the tendency to stereotype. In addition, the response of participants whose tolerance of ambiguity is low was more stereotypic than the response of those who tolerate ambiguity. However, the combined effect of the two independent variables was additive rather than interactive. Contrary to prediction, high tolerance of ambiguity did not attenuate the effect of stress on stereotyping.     

Motivational bases in mixed-motive interactions: The effects of comparison levels

The relationship between reward level and the basic motives which underlie strategic choices (competitive and noncompetitive) in a mixed-motive game was examined from two theoretical perspectives. The “regret” interpretation proposed by McClintock and McNeel was compared to an approach based upon Thibout and Kelley's concept of comparison level (CL). Two independent variables, CL and Reward, were manipulated by varying the payoff rates in two playing series of the MDG. Initially, 50 iterations were played for high (4¢ per point) or low ($\text{1}\text{5¢}$ per point) incentive to provide subjects with outcomes upon which to base their CL's. The Reward manipulation was introduced in 150 subsequent trials of the game with subjects playing for 8¢ or 1¢ per point. The results show that the absolute magnitude of reward did not influence the extent of cooperative or competitive behavior. On the other hand, the magnitude of reward relative to CL was significantly associated with the degree of cooperative behavior—supra-CL outcomes yielding a higher frequency of cooperative behavior than infra-CL outcomes.     

The relationships between television viewing in midlife and the development of Alzheimer's disease in a case-control study

The relationship between leisure activities and development of cognitive impairment in aging has been the subject of recent research. We examined television viewing in association with risk of developing Alzheimer's disease (AD) in a case-control study. Given recent focus on the importance of intellectually stimulating activities as preventive measures against cognitive decline, it is important to examine the effects of less stimulating but common activities. Data are from 135 Alzheimer's disease cases and 331 healthy controls. Demographic characteristics and life history questionnaire responses on the number of hours spent on 26 leisure activities during middle-adulthood (ages 40-59) were analyzed. Logistic regression was used to examine the effects of middle-adulthood leisure activities on case vs. control status. Results indicate that for each additional daily hour of middle-adulthood television viewing the associated risk of AD development, controlling for year of birth, gender, income, and education, increased 1.3 times. Participation in intellectually stimulating activities and social activities reduced the associated risk of developing AD. Findings are consistent with the view that participation in non-intellectually stimulating activities is associated with increased risk of developing AD, and suggest television viewing may be a marker of reduced participation in intellectually stimulating activities.     

Forensic evaluations in immigration cases: Evolving issues

To date little attention has been paid to forensic mental health assessments in immigration cases. This article briefly reviews the law relevant to assessments in these cases, and then examines some of the individual, family, community and cultural issues that impact upon forensic evaluations in immigration cases.     

Training for Task Performance Under Stress: The Effectiveness of Phased Training Methods

Studies on the training of individuals for task performance in stressful situations have typically considered two approaches. One approach requires that, while training on the task, trainees be exposed to stressors of a kind and intensity characteristic of the situations for which they are being trained ("high fidelity" training). Such an approach might suffer from the interference of stressors with task acquisition. Another approach allows the trainee to train on the task in a stress-free environment or under low-intensity stressors ("low fidelity" training). This approach leaves the trainee insufficiently prepared for task performance under stress. The present study compared these two basic approaches to three forms of "phased" training, which consisted of different combinations of three separate and distinct training phases: a phase which allows the trainee to acquire the task under stress- free conditions; a phase which allows him or her to passively experience the stressor; and a phase in which newly acquired skills are practiced under stress. The results showed that a phased training process which combines the first and third phases just described, is more effective than either "high fidelity" training or "low fidelity" training.     

Variable Credibility Threats: A Procedure for the Enhancement of Deterrence Effectiveness1

This experiment evaluated a procedure whereby tax evasions can be more effectively deterred by dividing the taxpayers' population into two, high- and low-audit probability, categories. The procedure employs a rule that assigns tax evaders to the high-audit probability category and assigns those who abide by the law to a low-audit probability category. A simple empirical simulation showed that the “variable probabilities” procedure prevented tax evasions more effectively than an alternative, “fixed probability” procedure, in which the same audit probability applied to all individuals, regardless of their past record.     

Processes of verbal memory failure in Alzheimer-type dementia

Multiple aspects of verbal learning and memory performance in mild as compared to moderate Alzheimer-type dementia (ATD) were studied with the Buschke selective reminding paradigm. Results show that (1) both groups of ATD subjects depend less on long-term memory (LTM) and more on short-term memory (STM) relative to elderly control subjects, (2) mild ATD subjects show less LTM encoding than moderate ATD subjects, (3) moderate ATD subjects retrieve a smaller portion of the items presumed to be encoded into LTM than do mild ATD subjects, and (4) high-imagery words increase LTM encoding and retrieval as compared to low-imagery words for moderate ATD subjects only. These results are explained by the inability of ATD subjects to attend to more than one component of the list-learning task, in conjunction with differences in the deployment of attention between mild and moderate ATD subjects.     

The cost of richness: the effect of the size and diversity of decision sets on post-decision regret

Decision making is often made difficult by the knowledge that one has to live with the outcomes of one's choices and with the regret that these might engender. Formal theories propose that regret is proportional to the difference between the outcome of the option chosen and the expected outcome of the next best alternative that one may have chosen instead. It follows that the number of alternatives available for choice does not affect post-decisional regret. In this study, however, the authors proposed that regret is related to the comparison between the alternative chosen and the union of the positive attributes of the alternatives rejected. This general proposition yielded 2 hypotheses: (a) the larger number of alternatives from which one can choose and (b) the more diverse those alternatives are, the stronger the regret that an unsatisfactory choice would cause. These hypotheses were tested and supported by 4 experiments.     

Underemployment: Consequences for the Health and Well-Being of Workers

This paper addresses the question of how the adequacy of a person's employment status influences their health. We draw on and extend the Labor Utilization Framework to distinguish between different forms of underemployment (hours, income, skills, and status) and test their relative effects on a range of physical health and psychological well-being outcomes. Using data drawn from a nationally representative sample (N=1,429) of adults of working age, we assess the concurrent effects of underemployment through a longitudinal design that controls for prior levels of health and well-being. The results indicate that underemployed workers do report lower levels of health and well-being than adequately employed workers. However, the relationship varies by both types of underemployment and indicator of health and well-being. We conclude by discussing future research to explore the relationship between underemployment and health and well-being.