Attitudinal ambivalence, rumination, and forgiveness of partner transgressions in marriage

Although positive and negative attitudes toward a transgressor are related to increased and decreased forgiveness, respectively, prior research has failed to investigate forgiveness among those who feel both positively and negatively toward a transgressor. Therefore, the authors examined such ambivalence and its relationship to forgiveness. It was hypothesized that spouses with ambivalent attitudes toward their partner will be less forgiving of a partner transgression because such an event is likely to prime the negative component of their ambivalence. Because ruminating about a transgression also has the potential to prime the negative component of one's ambivalence, an interaction between rumination and ambivalence was predicted. Data from 87 married couples showed that greater attitudinal ambivalence toward the partner was associated with decreased forgiveness only when husbands and wives thought about the transgression frequently; ambivalence was not related to forgiveness in the absence of rumination. The implications of these findings for understanding forgiveness in marriage and for increasing forgiveness among married couples are discussed.     

Avoidance behavior can function as a negative occasion setter

The authors put forward the hypothesis that avoidance learning can result from the fact that participants learn (a) that a stimulus is followed by an unconditioned stimulus (US) when the avoidance behavior is not emitted and (b) that the stimulus is not followed by the US when the avoidance behavior is emitted. As such, avoidance behavior is assumed to function as a negative occasion setter. The results of a contingency judgment experiment involving 65 students showed that avoidance behavior indeed has the unique functional properties of a negative occasion setter (resistance to counterconditioning and selective transfer of modulation).     

Avoiding degeneracy in multidimensional unfolding by penalizing on the coefficient of variation

Multidimensional unfolding methods suffer from the degeneracy problem in almost all circumstances. Most degeneracies are easily recognized: the solutions are perfect but trivial, characterized by approximately equal distances between points from different sets. A definition of an absolutely degenerate solution is proposed, which makes clear that these solutions only occur when an intercept is present in the transformation function. Many solutions for the degeneracy problem have been proposed and tested, but with little success so far. In this paper, we offer a substantial modification of an approach initiated bythat introduced a normalization factor based on thevariance in the usual least squares loss function. Heiser unpublishedthesis, (1981) and showed that the normalization factor proposed by Kruskal and Carroll was not strong enough to avoid degeneracies. The factor proposed in the present paper, based on the coefficient of variation, discourages or penalizes nonmetric transformations of the proximities with small variation, so that the procedure steers away from solutions with small variation in the interpoint distances. An algorithm is described for minimizing the re-adjusted loss function, based on iterative majorization. The results of a simulation study are discussed, in which the optimal range of the penalty parameters is determined. Two empirical data sets are analyzed by our method, clearly showing the benefits of the proposed loss function.The authors would like to thank the editor, an associate editor, and three reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions to improve the quality of this work.This revised article was published online in August 2005 with the PDF paginated correctly.     

Associative learning of likes and dislikes: Some current controversies and possible ways forward

Evaluative conditioning (EC) is one of the terms that is used to refer to associatively induced changes in liking. Many controversies have arisen in the literature on EC. Do associatively induced changes in liking actually exist? Does EC depend on awareness of the fact that stimuli are associated? Is EC resistant to extinction? Does attention help or hinder EC? As an introduction to this special issue, we will discuss the extent to which the papers that are published in this issue help to resolve some of the controversies that surround EC. We also speculate about possible boundary conditions of EC and attempt to reconcile conflicting results on the functional properties of EC.     

Beyond evaluative conditioning? Searching for associative transfer of nonevaluative stimulus properties

Evaluative conditioning refers to the changes in liking of an evaluatively neutral stimulus (the conditional stimulus or CS) as a result of merely pairing it with another, already liked or disliked stimulus (the unconditional stimulus or US). We examined whether other, non-evaluative stimulus properties of a US can also be associatively transferred to a CS. In a series of experiments, we tried to transfer perceptions of the gender of children and the gender of first names. We found evidence for the associative transfer of these properties but only when participants were aware of the contingencies.     

The subjective size of melodic intervals over a two-octave range

Musically trained and untrained participants provided magnitude estimates of the size of melodic intervals. Each interval was formed by a sequence of two pitches that differed by between 50 cents (one half of a semitone) and 2,400 cents (two octaves) and was presented in a high or a low pitch register and in an ascending or a descending direction. Estimates were larger for intervals in the high pitch register than for those in the low pitch register and for descending intervals than for ascending intervals. Ascending intervals were perceived as larger than descending intervals when presented in a high pitch register, but descending intervals were perceived as larger than ascending intervals when presented in a low pitch register. For intervals up to an octave in size, differentiation of intervals was greater for trained listeners than for untrained listeners. We discuss the implications for psychophysical pitch scales and models of music perception.     

Emotion as a thermostat: representing emotion regulation using a damped oscillator model

The authors present in this study a damped oscillator model that provides a direct mathematical basis for testing the notion of emotion as a self-regulatory thermostat. Parameters from this model reflect individual differences in emotional lability and the ability to regulate emotion. The authors discuss concepts such as intensity, rate of change, and acceleration in the context of emotion, and they illustrate the strengths of this approach in comparison with spectral analysis and growth curve models. The utility of this modeling approach is illustrated using daily emotion ratings from 179 college students over 52 consecutive days. Overall, the damped oscillator model provides a meaningful way of representing emotion regulation as a dynamic process and helps identify the dominant periodicities in individuals' emotions.     

A computer running several psychological laboratories

Seven psychological laboratories, capable of testing 22 human and 4 animal Ss in seven different experiments using a variety of peripheral equipment, are in various stages of operation using an IBM 1800 process-control computer in the Psychology Department at Indiana University. Each experiment utilizes four appropriate software programs: SETUP, PROCEDURE, UI1LITY, and OUTPUT. The programming is usually simple enough to be done by nonprofessional programmers. This simplification was made possible by (1) a set of subroutines written to handle many of the process-control programming complexities, and (2) the IBM-provided Time-Sharing Executive (TSX) program.     

Confidentiality in College Counseling Centers

In a national survey of college counseling centers, 40 percent of the responding counseling center directors indicated that information about counselees was given out without the students' permission. Information was available to administrative heads for use in recommendations and disciplinary action, 21 percent; deans of students, 10 percent; faculty in general, 5 percent; and prospective employers, 2 percent. This practice is in violation of the ethical codes of APGA and APA except in those relatively rare instances where there is clear and imminent danger to society. In this paper some speculation about the cause of breakdown in confidentiality is discussed, and some suggestions for correcting the situation are offered.     

PROBLEMS IN ESTABLISHING NORMS FOR CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISONS

Problèmes de l'établissement des normes dans les comparisons interculturelles. — En examinant plusieurs des méthodes employées pour comparer les attitudes et les pratiques de parents allemands et américains relativement à l'éducation des enfants, nous avons abouti aux conclusions suivantes, susceptibles de s'appliquer à toutes les études comparatives interculturelles. 1. Les observations rollectées dans une culture et réduites à des moyennes ne peuvent servir à en évaluer une autre. — 2. Il faudrait étudier des problèmes spécifiques plutôt que des problèmes généraux ou globaux; on peut s'attendre à trouver des configurations complexes dans les différences observées. — 3. Les variables susceptibles ou non de modification selon l'âge de l'enfant, augmentent la complexité des comparaisons entre cultures. — 4. Une norme basée sur une culture n'est probablement pas valable pour une autre. — 5. Les méthodes basées sur l'utilisation d'observateurs bi-culturels semblent réduire au minimum la possibilité d'erreurs systéamatiques et la dépendance vis-à-vis de normes non-équivalentes. — 6. Les questions et les résponses de type opératoire et comportemental augmenteront, mais ne garantiront pas, la précision et la validité de l'instrument employé. — 7. Les questions ouvertes ne peuvent permettre de différencier les éléments non importants, très évidents ou uniformes des comportements ou des attitudes. — 8. Actuellement, on ne peut que rarement détecter les causes du comportement. Il n'est peut-être pas possible de les mettre en évidence, en dehors des cas où plusieurs méthodes différentes et différentes sortes de questions donnent des résultats cohérents. — 9. Il est nécessaire d'isoler un très grand nombre de variables dans chaque culture avant de pouvoir faire des comparaisons interculturelles satisfaisantes. l'utilisation de moyens électroniques pourrait faciliter le travail.