Parametric and nonparametric bootstrap methods for meta-analysis

In a meta-analysis, the unknown parameters are often estimated using maximum likelihood, and inferences are based on asymptotic theory. It is assumed that, conditional on study characteristics included in the model, the between-study distribution and the sampling distributions of the effect sizes are normal. In practice, however, samples are finite, and the normality assumption may be violated, possibly resulting in biased estimates and inappropriate standard errors. In this article, we propose two parametric and two nonparametric bootstrap methods that can be used to adjust the results of maximum likelihood estimation in meta-analysis and illustrate them with empirical data. A simulation study, with raw data drawn from normal distributions, reveals that the parametric bootstrap methods and one of the nonparametric methods are generally superior to the ordinary maximum likelihood approach but suffer from a bias/precision tradeoff. We recommend using one of these bootstrap methods, but without applying the bias correction.     

Effects of stimulus-stimulus compatibility and stimulus-response compatibility on response inhibition

Previous studies demonstrated that interference control in stimulus–stimulus compatibility tasks slowed down stopping in the stop signal task (e.g., Kramer, A. F., Humphrey, D. G., Larish, J. F., Logan, G. D., & Strayer, D. L. (1994). Aging and inhibition: beyond a unitary view of inhibitory processing in attention. psychology and aging, 9, 491–512). In the present study, the impact of stimulus–stimulus compatibility and stimulus–response compatibility on response inhibition is further investigated. In Experiment 1, the stop signal task was combined with a traditional horizontal Simon task and with a vertical variant. For both dimensions, stopping responses was prolonged in incompatible trials, but only when the previous trial was compatible. In Experiment 2, the Simon task was combined with a spatial Stroop task in order to compare the effects of stimulus–stimulus and stimulus–response compatibility. The results demonstrated that both types of compatibility influenced stopping in a similar way. These findings are in favor of the hypothesis that response inhibition in the stop signal task and interference control in conflict tasks rely on similar mechanisms.     

Administrative Obedience: Carrying Out Orders to use Psychological-Administrative Violence

A paradigm named ‘administrative obedience’ was designed to study obedience in carrying out orders to use a kind of violence that is typical for our times, namely psychological-administrative violence resulting in definite harm. In this study, the victim was an applicant for a job, who came to the laboratory to take a test, This test would determine whether or not he would get the job. Subjects were ordered, in the context of a research project, to make the applicant nervous and to disturb him during the test; consequently, the applicant failed the test and remained unemployed. More than 90 per cent of the subjects carried out these orders, although they considered them unfair and did not enjoy doing the task, The level of administrative obedience found in our study is higher than the level of obedience found in the comparable experiment by Milgram. The experimental conditions ‘Experimental absent’ and ‘Two peers rebel’ produced a reduction of obedience in our paradigm comparable to that which occurred in Milgram's paradigm.     

A maximin model for IRT-based test design with practical constraints

A maximin model for IRT-based test design is proposed. In the model only the relative shape of the target test information function is specified. It serves as a constraint subject to which a linear programming algorithm maximizes the information in the test. In the practice of test construction, several demands as linear constraints in the model. A worked example of a text construction problem with practical constraints is presented. The paper concludes with a discussion of some alternative models of test construction.The authors are indebted to Jos J. Adea for suggesting Equation 17 as a Simplification of an earlier version of this constraint. This research was suuorted in part by a grant from the Dutch Organization for Research (NWO) through the Foundation for Psychological and Psychonomic Research in the Netherlands (Psychon).     

On perceiving morality and potency: Social values and the effects of person perception in a give-some dilemma

The present study examines a two-person give-some dilemma characterized by the conflict between the pursuit of own benefits (not giving) and collective benefits (giving). The major purpose was two-fold: (a) to examine the effects of person perceptions manipulated along the dimensions of morality (goodness) and potency (strength) on co-operation, and (b) to examine whether pre-existing differences between individuals in their preference for specific self-other outcome distributions (social values) would modify the effects of person perception. First, we predicted and found that across social values the degree of co-operative behaviour increased as a linear function of the extent to which the other was seen as moral. Concerning the perceptions in terms of potency, we found a significant quadratic trend; another seen as moderate on potency elicited more co-operative behaviour than another seen as either high or low on potency. These effects of person perception were not moderated by social value. More interesting was the finding that even though persons classified as pro-social (co-operators and altruists) and pro-self (individualists and competitors) held about the same expectation about the magnitude of another's co-operation, pro-socials behaved more co-operatively than pro-selfs. This suggests that under certain conditions behavioural differences between pro-socials and pro-selfs are not conditional upon expectational differences between those two social values.     

An efficient algorithm for PARAFAC of three-way data with large numbers of observation units

The CANDECOMP algorithm for the PARAFAC analysis ofn×m×p three-way arrays is adapted to handle arrays in whichn>mp more efficiently. For such arrays, the adapted algorithm needs less memory space to store the data during the iterations, and uses less computation time than the original CANDECOMP algorithm. The size of the arrays that can be handled by the new algorithm is in no way limited by the number of observation units (n) in the data.The authors are obliged to Jos ten Berge for his comments on an earlier version of this paper. The research of Henk A. L. Kiers has been made possible by a fellowship of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.     

Using aptitude measurements for the optimal assignment of subjects to treatments with and without mastery scores

For assigning subjects to treatments the point of intersection of within-group regression lines is ordinarily used as the critical point. This decision rule is critized and, for several utility functions and any number of treatments, replaced by optimal monotone, nonrandomized (Bayes) rules. Both treatments with and without mastery scores are considered. Moreover, the effect of unreliable criterion scores on the optimal decision rule is examined, and it is illustrated how qualitative information can be combined with aptitude measurements to improve treatment assignment decisions. Although the models in this paper are presented with special reference to the aptitude-treatment interaction problem in education, it is indicated that they apply to a variety of situations in which subjects are assigned to treatments on the basis of some predictor score, as long as there are no allocation quota considerations.     

Similarity of attitudes and instrumentality as determinants of aggression by policemen

The influences of two determinants of aggression were investigated by means of a two by two factorial design. Aggression was operationally defined in terms of the amount and intensity of obnoxious sounds which the subject delivered to the confederate while the latter was trying to perform a task involving estimation of distances. In order to manipulate the first independent variable one half of the group of subjects were led to believe that the victim was someone who had many attitudes similar to their own. The other subjects thought they had to cope with a partner whose attitudes were dissimilar. The second independent variable was manipulated by suggesting to one half of the group of subjects that they would be able to earn increasing sums of money (up to a fixed maximum) depending on the loudness of sounds they were prepared to deliver to their partner. In the non-reward condition money was not mentioned. The subjects were young policemen. The data showed a strong effect of the similarity variable, with significantly more aggression being shown to a dissimilar partner. However, external reward did not lead to a clear increase of aggression. In the discussion attention is given to the relevance of these data to the problem of control of violence in our society.     

Compathy or Physical Empathy: Implications for the Caregiver Relationship

In this article a case is made for the importance of a previously overlooked phenomenon, physical empathy orcompathy,defined as the physical manifestation of caregiver distress that occurs in the presence of a patient in physical pain or distress. According to the similarity of a caregiver's response to the original symptoms, there can be four types of compathetic response: identical, initiated, transferred, and converted. Controlling for the compathetic response may involve narrowing one's focus and/or changing caregiver attitudes. Finally, we argue that while the compathetic response may be beneficial to the caregiving relationship, enabling the provision of appropriate and adequate humane treatment and care, the caregiver must at times shield against the compathetic response in order to provide care.