Counterfactual comparison modulates fairness consideration in the mini‐ultimatum game: An event‐related potentials study

Existing literature on the mini‐ultimatum game indicates that counterfactual comparison between chosen and unchosen alternatives is of great importance for individual's fairness consideration. However, it is still unclear how counterfactual comparison influences the electrophysiological responses to unfair chosen offers. In conjunction with event‐related potentials’ (ERPs) technique, the current study aimed to explore the issue by employing a modified version of the mini‐ultimatum game where a fixed set of two alternatives (unfair offer vs. fair alternative, unfair vs. hyperfair alternative, unfair offer vs. hyperunfair alternative) was presented before the chosen offer. The behavioral results showed that participants were more likely to accept unfair chosen offers when the unchosen alternative was hyperunfair than when the unchosen alternative was fair or hyperfair. The ERPs results showed that the feedback‐related negativity (FRN) elicited by unfair chosen offers was insensitive to the type of unchosen alternative when correcting for possible overlap with other components. In contrast, unfair chosen offers elicited larger P300 amplitudes when the unchosen alternative was hyperunfair than when the unchosen alternative was fair or hyperfair. These findings suggest that counterfactual comparison may take effect at later stages of fairness consideration as reflected by the P300.     

Sources of motivation, interpersonal conflict management styles, and leadership effectiveness: a structural model

126 leaders and 624 employees were sampled to test the relationship between sources of motivation and conflict management styles of leaders and how these variables influence effectiveness of leadership. Five sources of motivation measured by the Motivation Sources Inventory were tested-intrinsic process, instrumental, self-concept external, self-concept internal, and goal internalization. These sources of work motivation were associated with Rahim's modes of interpersonal conflict management-dominating, avoiding, obliging, complying, and integrating-and to perceived leadership effectiveness. A structural equation model tested leaders' conflict management styles and leadership effectiveness based upon different sources of work motivation. The model explained variance for obliging (65%), dominating (79%), avoiding (76%), and compromising (68%), but explained little variance for integrating (7%). The model explained only 28% of the variance in leader effectiveness.     

Understanding the object benefit in visual short-term memory: the roles of feature proximity and connectedness

Past research has identified visual objects as the units of information processing in visual short-term memory (VSTM) and has shown that two features from the same object can be remembered in VSTM as well (or almost as well) as one feature of that object and are much better remembered than the same two features from two spatially separated objects. It is not clear, however, what drives this object benefit in VSTM. Is it the shared spatial location (proximity), the connectedness among features of an object, or both? In six change detection experiments, both location/proximity and connectedness were found to be crucial in determining the magnitude of the object benefit in VSTM. Together, these results indicate that location/proximity and connectedness are essential elements in defining a coherent visual object representation in VSTM.     

The development of executive functioning and theory of mind. A comparison of Chinese and U.S. preschoolers

Preschoolers' theory-of-mind development follows a similar age trajectory across many cultures. To determine whether these similarities are related to similar underlying ontogenetic processes, we examined whether the relation between theory of mind and executive function commonly found among U.S. preschoolers is also present among Chinese preschoolers. Preschoolers from Beijing, China (N= 109), were administered theory-of-mind and executive-functioning tasks, and their performance was compared with that of a previously studied sample of U.S. preschoolers (N= 107). The Chinese preschoolers outperformed their U.S. counterparts on all measures of executive functioning, but were not similarly advanced in theory-of-mind reasoning. Nonetheless, individual differences in executive functioning predicted theory of mind for children in both cultures. Thus, the relation between executive functioning and theory of mind is robust across two disparate cultures. These findings shed light on why executive functioning is important for theory-of-mind development.     

Discontinuous precipitation initiated at interphase boundaries in a Zn-rich Zn-6.3 at.% Ag alloy

Discontinuous precipitation in a two-phase Zn-rich Zn-6.3at.%Ag alloy has been studied. It has been shown that the eta/epsilon interphase boundaries have the ability to initiate discontinuous precipitation as do the eta/eta grain boundaries. The back-polishing method is used to show the interconnection between a discontinuous precipitate colony and the eta/epsilon interphase boundary. The reaction front velocity of discontinuous precipitation initiated at the eta/eta grain boundary is 12-90% higher than that of discontinuous precipitation initiated at the eta/epsilon interphase boundary under various ageing temperatures.     

Homogeneous nucleation of dislocation loops under stress in perfect crystals

We present an analysis and results on the homogeneous nucleation of a dislocation loop under stress in a perfect crystal. By using a variational boundary integral method in the Peierls-Nabarro framework, we have determined the saddle-point configurations of embryonic dislocation loops and their associated activation energies under stress levels up to the ideal shear strength. The high-energy barriers under the usual levels of applied shear stresses, differing markedly from the ideal shear strength, confirm the widely held view that thermal motion should play no role in such nucleation. The result provides means for more definitive solutions of fundamental problems involving homogeneous nucleation of dislocation loops and has significant implications for models based on the mechanism of nucleation of dislocations from a perfect crystal.     

Application of the stagnant stage concept for monitoring Mn partitioning at the austenite-ferrite interface in the intercritical region for Fe–Mn–C alloys

The length of the stagnant stage during the new ferrite growth starting from a mixture of austenite and ferrite has been investigated for a Fe-0.17Mn-0.023C (wt%) alloy. It was found that the stagnant stage depends on the thermal path followed to create the mixture, and deduce that the tie-lines for austenite to ferrite transformation are quite different from those for ferrite to austenite transformation. The length of the stagnant stage is determined by the very local partitioning effect at the interface, and it can be used as a tool to monitor the Mn partitioning.     

Understanding scale-dependent yield stress of metals at micrometre scales

The mechanical softening behaviour of micrometre-scale metals (free-standing metal foils and wires) with decreasing either the geometrical or the microstructural scale (i.e. the smaller, the weaker) has recently been reported. Here, we present a mechanism-based model to understand the softening behaviour, which is based on competition between the effects of surface grain relaxation and the interior grain strengthening effect. The model describes well the yield stress of Cu foils with different ratios of the thickness to grain size.     

基因研究中的知情同意之惑

知情同意作为生命伦理的重要原则,在基因研究中同样占据重要的地位,由于基因研究中知情同意的异质性,在基因研究中面临着诸如如何理解其知情同意的异质性、群体知情同意、基因知情与基因隐私、利益冲突等问题.通过分析基因研究中知情同意的特殊性,综合国内外此领域的已有研究,运用理论联系实际的方法,得出结论认为,只有正确区分基因知情与基因隐私的权利主体,用伦理规范来解决利益冲突,在发展中不断完善知情同意,才能够取得科技与伦理的共赢.     

论《淮南子》的墨子观

《淮南子》对墨子持有复杂的政治认识与态度,这在秦汉思想史上具有一定的代表性。从黄老道家的根本立场出发,“批墨”是《淮南子》政治思想的基本主张,但与此同时,《淮南子》也内在地显示出“尊墨”的政治情怀,进而试图对墨子政治思想有所借鉴和汲取,达到“融墨”之理论目的。对待墨子及其政治思想的历史态度,既凸显出《淮南子》立足黄老,融通诸子的博大精神,也彰显出墨子在秦汉政治思想发展中独特的历史影响。