Mapping Moral Motivation

In this paper we defend a version of moral internalism and a cognitivist account of motivation against recent criticisms. The internalist thesis we espouse claims that, if an agent believes she has reason to A, then she is motivated to A. Discussion of counter-examples has been clouded by the absence of a clear account of the nature of motivation. While we can only begin to provide such an account in this paper, we do enough to show that our version of internalism can be defended against putative counter-examples. All theories of motivation which take what motivates to be a psychological state run foul of the following plausible constraint: the reason why you ought to do an action and the reason why you do it can be the same. In our view, however, while what motivates is a reason (which is a fact) the state of being motivated is a cognitive stage, viz. the belief that one has reason to act. In cases where the agent's relevant beliefs are false, then she has no reason to act, but nontheless her action can be explained in other ways.     

Environnement lumineux et anxiété des patients en service d’IRM

BackgroundMagnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a medical imagery exam, which is considered stressful/worrying for patients. This anxiety is related to several factors: negative beliefs linked to the lack of knowledge about the procedure of the exam, duration, noise of the MRI, etc. Several interventions, before and during the MRI were proposed and evaluated with the aim of reducing anxiety for patients (information given to patients, psychological preparation before the exam and hypnosis, aromatherapy, sedation, environment and positioning of the patient). While the health service is more and more centered on cost-efficiency and pressure for greater patient throughput, it is important to find appropriate interventions to improve patient tolerance of MRIs.ObjectiveThe objective of this study was to compare anxiety of patients based on the MRI luminous environment.Methods208 patients aged 18–70 years participated in the study. Four subgroups were created according to the presence or absence of luminous environment, screen and music: G1 (60 participants, with luminous environment, without screen, music with fast tempo); G2 (60 participants, with luminous environment, with screen, music with slow tempo); G3 (27 participants, without luminous environment, without music); G4 (61 participants, without luminous environment, music with fast tempo). All participants completed a questionnaire to evaluate their anxiety regarding the exam (anxiety-state, AE) and in everyday life (anxiety-trait, AT): STAI-Y. Open questions were also asked to participants in order to gain an understanding of their experience of the exam (positive points and suggestions for improvements).ResultsThe results showed a significant difference between the groups of the AE: patients of group G1 showed more AE than patients in group G2 (p = 0.037), patients of group G2 showed less AE than those of group G3 (p = 0.001), and patients of group G3 showed more AE than patients in group G4 (p = 0.019). No significative difference was found between the 3 groups in the AT. The participants who underwent exams in a room with a luminous environment equipped with a screen with slow tempo music reported more satisfaction and offered fewer suggestions for improvement compared with the two other groups.ConclusionThis study has revealed that the environment in which patients undergo their exam affects their level of anxiety during the exam. A luminous environment equipped with a screen led to a considerable decrease in patient anxiety during the MRI exam. Technological innovations are allowing the patient to be the center of radiographers focus more and more. Trying to priorities improvement of patient well-being consequently facilitates their work. Taking into account the cost and increasing number of medical imagery exams, prevention of anxiety and its undesirable side-effects is not only important for patients, but also avoids wastage of staff and of time. The results of this study should encourage health centers to invest in these new installations, keeping in mind that new technologies can never replace information and support offered before the exam by radiologists and radiographers.     

How older adults use cognition in sentence-final word recognition

This study examined the effects of executive control and working memory on older adults’ sentence-final word recognition. The question we addressed was the importance of executive functions to this process and how it is modulated by the predictability of the speech material. To this end, we tested 173 neurologically intact adult native English speakers aged 55–84 years. Participants were given a sentence-final word recognition test in which sentential context was manipulated and sentences were presented in different levels of babble, and multiple tests of executive functioning assessing inhibition, shifting, and efficient access to long-term memory, as well as working memory. Using a generalized linear mixed model, we found that better inhibition was associated with higher accuracy in word recognition, while increased age and greater hearing loss were associated with poorer performance. Findings are discussed in the framework of semantic control and are interpreted as supporting a theoretical view of executive control which emphasizes functional diversity among executive components.     

Impact of simulated visual impairment on the cognitive test performance of young adults

Aims. This study investigated the effect of simulated visual impairment on the speed and accuracy of performance on a series of commonly used cognitive tests. Methods. Cognitive performance was assessed for 30 young, visually normal subjects (M=22.0±3.1 years) using the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST), Trail Making Test (TMT) A and B and the Stroop Colour Word Test under three visual conditions: normal vision and two levels of visually degrading filters (Vistech^TM) administered in a random order. Distance visual acuity and contrast sensitivity were also assessed for each filter condition. Results. The visual filters, which degraded contrast sensitivity to a greater extent than visual acuity, significantly increased the time to complete (p<.05), but not the number of errors made, on the DSST and the TMT A and B and affected only some components of the Stroop test. Conclusions. Reduced contrast sensitivity had a marked effect on the speed but not the accuracy of performance on commonly used cognitive tests, even in young individuals; the implications of these findings are discussed.     

Field operational test of a seatbelt reminder system: Effects on driver behaviour and acceptance

The long-term effects on driver behaviour and acceptance of a seatbelt reminder system were examined in an on-road study. The system was capable of detecting seatbelt use in all seating positions and produced a two-stage visual and auditory warning if occupants were unrestrained. The effects of this system were evaluated alone and in combination with two other intelligent transport systems: intelligent speed adaptation and a following distance warning system. Twenty-three fleet car drivers drove an instrumented vehicle (SafeCar) for at least 16,500 km as part of their everyday driving. The results revealed that driver and passenger interaction with the seatbelt reminder system led to large and significant decreases in the percentage of trips where occupants were unbelted, in the percentage of total driving time spent unbelted, and in the time taken to fasten a seatbelt in response to system warnings. The seatbelt reminder system was rated by drivers as being useful, effective and socially acceptable, and led to a decrease in drivers’ subjective workload. These results were found even though the baseline pre-exposure seatbelt wearing compliance rates among participants were high.     

Young children’s acquisition of knowledge about the Earth: A longitudinal study

This longitudinal study examined the acquisition of early knowledge of astronomy to determine whether children’s knowledge at any point in time is consistent with a naive “mental model.” Children were first assessed by means of open questions and drawing tasks at 2 and 3 years of age (N = 143). The knowledge was reassessed over the course of the following 3 years. The results showed that although a few indications of naive mental models were found, in most cases young children’s knowledge was fragmented and accurate knowledge was often expressed alongside inaccurate/synthetic ideas. Furthermore, it was shown that children need to know scientific facts before they start taking the global perspective when describing the world and, when faced with ambiguous open questions, children often experience difficulties that can induce them to change the types of answers they provide.