Theorising about counselling

The process of counselling differs from other helping processes not only in its aims and methods but also in the nature of the relationships established between the two participants. Clearer definition of these various processes in terms of the 'primary task' and the role relationship which each task involves would avoid role-confusion when individual helpers are called upon to switch from one job to another. An agreed definition of the nature of counselling would also be beneficial on theoretical grounds since many so-called 'theories of counselling' deal not with counselling per se but with varying approaches to the study of human development. The relation between theory and practice in the training of counsellors is discussed in the context of the work of Argyle, Goffman and the learning theorists, as well as Rogers.     

Effect of contralateral shock stimulation on laterality differences in the two shock threshold

Contralaterally presented shock was found to bring about marked changes in two shock threshold determined for the right finger but not for the left finger. The results are discussed in terms of a suggestion that the level of excitability of the left hemisphere may be more easily disturbed than that of the right hemisphere.     

The effect of somaesthetic and acoustic stimuli on the threshold of fusion of paired light flashes in human subjects

The threshold of fusion of paired flashes of light was measured by determining the largest interval between two flashes of light at which they were reported as one and not as two flashes. When a weak electric shock to the skin was presented at the same time as the first flash, the threshold was increased compared to the threshold measured when the flashes were unaccompanied by a shock. As the interval between shock and first flash was increased up to 600 millisec, the effect diminished. A similar pattern of results was obtained using a click, instead of a shock as the additional stimulus. The effect on the two-flash threshold of varying click intensity was also studied. No retroactive effects of the shock on the two-flash threshold were observed.     

Visual perception of direction when voluntary saccades occur. I. Relation of visual direction of a fixation target extinguished before a saccade to a flash presented during the saccade

In experiments designed to clarify the mechanisms underlying the normal stability of visual direction for stationary objects when voluntary saccades occur, Ss reported on the horizontal visual direction of a brief test [lash presented when the eye was at a specific point in the saccade (the trigger point) relative to a fixation target viewed and extinguished prior to the saccade. From these reports, PSEs (points of subjective equality) were calculated for the fixation target as measured by the test [lashes. The distance of the trigger point from the previous fixation position was systematically varied in each experiment. Different experiments required saccades of different lengths and directions. With the exception of the presentation of the test [lash the saccades were carried out in complete darkness so that the possible utilization of an extraretinal signal regarding the eye movement (change in eye position, the intention to turn the eye, or a change of attention related to the eye movement) in the determination of visual direction could be observed uncomplicated by a continuing visual context. According to classical theories, an extraretinal signal proportional to the change in eye position acts to maintain direction constancy by compensating for the Shift of the retinal image resulting from the movement of the eye. In general, direction constancy was not preserved in the present experiments, and thus the data would not be predicted by classical theories. However, the PSE varied with distance of the trigger point from the fixation target. Since this displacement of PSE from the trigger point was in the correct direction for compensation, the presence of an extraretinal signal was confirmed. However, the growth of this signal appears to be time-locked to the saccade rather than locked to eye position; it is suggested that this growth takes place over a time period which is longer than the duration of the saccade itself.     

Dimensions of “Introversion-Extroversion”

Recently, social psychologists have set forth various hypotheses concerning the conditions that may affect the extent of attitude-behavior consistency. In this research we test the hypothesis, generally suggested by Fishbein, that attitude-behavior consistency is affected by the extent to which attitude and behavior are measured at approximately an equivalent level of generality. Behavior was measured at two levels of generality, and attitude was measured at five levels of generality. As the various attitudes were found to be moderately related, a multiple regression analysis was employed to estimate the independent effects and combined additive effects of the attitudes on each of the two levels of behavior. Briefly, the data supported the hypothesis, showing that both specific and general patterns of behavior were only affected by attitudes measured at an equivalent level of generality.     

The effect of stimulus amplitude on the threshold of fusion of paired flashes

Four experiments are described in which the threshold of fusion of paired flashes was measured. The intensity of the single flashes making up the pairs was varied independently. The results showed that when the first flash of the pair was the more intense, the threshold of fusion increased linearly as the difference in the log intensity of the two flashes. A proposal put forward to explain the results suggested the “noise” created by the first flash of the pair has to dissipate to a critical extent to allow the “signal” arising from the second flash to be detected.     

Evaluations of competence as a function of sex and marital status

A total of 160 female and male college students read a completed job application and an article written by the applicant. Both the job and the article were in nonsex-typed fields. The applicant was described as either female or male, and as either married, never married, widowed, or divorced. Subjects answered eight evaluate questions concerning the competence of the applicant and the merits of the article. Neither the sex nor the marital status of the applicant had a strong or consistent effect on the subjects' evaluations.