Why 2 + 2 = 5 looks so wrong: On the odd-even rule in sum verification

The odd-even status of a sum depends on the odd-even status of its addends. A sum must be odd if an odd number of its addends are odd; else it must be even. A proposed sum that violates the required odd-even status of the sum—that is, deviates from the correct sum, whether odd or even, by an odd value (e.g., splits of ±1, ±3, ±5)—can be rejected immediately as false. Subjects in the present study did indeed use the odd-even rule in sum verification, because they were as fast and accurate in rejecting a split of ±1 as one of ±2, and a split of ±3 as one of ±4, even though a larger split generally is easier to reject (symbolic distance effect), and splits of ±3 and ±4 were rejected faster and more accurately than those of ±1 and ±2. Performance on separate odd-even tasks indicated that the odd-even properties of numbers and sums are readily available for use by adults, and that persons who do well on such tasks are especially likely to use the odd-even rule in sum verification.     

Cation and anion contributions to gustatory quality of simple salts

Curves of mean percentages of the four gustatory quality responses as a function of concentration of solutions of LiCl, KCl, lithium sulfate, and potassium sulfate were evaluated as to the relative contributions of the cation and anion to the quality. It was concluded that chloride ion, and sulfate ion to a lesser degree, were responsible for the salty quality. In the mid-range concentrations, potassium ion was responsible for the bitter quality, and lithium ion, by means of an ion-soliient interaction; was responsible for the sour quality reported. At the very low concentrations, at which all salts tested evoked sweet responses, a structure produced by a solvent-cation interaction was assumed to be responsible. The details of the presumed structure are still to be clarified. Although one ion in each salt is primarily responsible for a particular quality over a given concentration, the other ion usually modifies the effect.     

Variability in gustatory quality identification

A total of 60 male and 60 female non-smoking undergraduates were tested on two gustatory screening tasks in which solutions representing the four basic taste qualities were used. The solution concentrations chosen were low, but supposedly distinct as to their qualities. Only 16% of the males were able to identify all solutions correctly, i.e., to a criterion of 4 correct out of 7 presentations, as compared to 34% of the females. A further 28% of the males consistently confused the sour and bitter qualities as did 10% of the females. A correction procedure used in one part of the experiment did not prevent this confusion. We suggest that the sour-bitter confusion may be the gustatory analogue of abnormal color vision.     

Cross-Cultural Counseling and Neurolinguistic Mirroring With Native American Adolescents

This study examined the effects of neurolinguistic mirroring versus nonmirroring of selected nonverbal behaviors on empathy, trustworthiness, and positive interaction in a cross-cultural setting among 60 Choctaw adolecents and Caucasian female counselors. Results indicated significant mirroring effects on the empathy scale of the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory.     

Evaluating the decay gradient for collinearity bias with lateral displacement from the axis of induction

The misperception of alignment which is found in many geometric illusions can be quantified using relatively simple stimulus configurations. Perceived collinearity of one segment (designated as the test segment) is biased by a second segment (designated as the induction segment), with the size of effect being a function of the relative angle between the two segments. The process can be described as angular induction. The strength of bias is greatest when the induction segment is centered at the tip of the test segment. Tong and Weintraub have reported that lateral displacement from the tip, i.e., at right angles to the axis of the induction segment, produces a sharp drop in the strength of effect. This decline is described as a decay gradient for the angular induction. One experiment replicates and provides better quantification of this decay gradient. Two other experiments examine the decay gradient using a pair of induction segments, one on each side of the tip of the test segment. Displacement of the segments (either in the same direction or in opposite directions) produces substantially the same gradient of effect. Therefore, previous evidence of tandem boosting of effect for segment pairs does not depend on collinearity among the stimulus components. Finally, a fourth experiment finds that an induction segment which is at a fixed position and orientation differentially affects the influence of a variable induction segment. At some angles the influence of the variable segment is augmented, and at others it is suppressed. These findings are discussed in a neuroreductionist context, and a simple model for angular induction is presented.