The Ethics of Prayer in Counseling

Spirituality has become increasingly important in counseling, with prayer being the spiritual intervention of choice for Christian counselors. The controversial nature of including prayer in counseling requires careful consideration of ethical issues. This article addresses the intersection of spiritual interventions, particularly prayer, with client welfare, multicultural sensitivity, values, and countertransference. The authors consider the ethical mandates, articulate concerns, and make recommendations.     

Stress and happiness among adolescents with varying frequency of physical activity

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate associations between physical activity, stress, and happiness, as well as possible sex and age differences on these variables in a survey of 1,508 adolescent pupils (13 to 18 yr.) in middle Norway. Adolescents who reported they participated in physical activity 2 to 3 times per week or more scored significantly lower on stress and higher on happiness than those who participated in physical activity 1 day per week or less. There was no significant difference on stress and happiness between those being physically active 2 or 3 times a week and those being active almost every day. There was no sex difference in physical activity frequency. Girls had higher mean scores on stress, and boys scored higher on happiness. Adolescents 15 to 16 years old showed higher stress scores than those 17 to 18 years old, but there were no significant differences between the different age groups when looking at happiness and physical activity. A statistically significant two-way interaction of sex by age was found on both stress and happiness.     

Temporal and spatial characteristics of selective encoding from visual displays

The time required for Ss to voice a target letter in a visual display was studied as a function of the spatial proximity of two kinds of noise elements (letters or disks) to the target and as a function of when the noise elements were presented following the onset of the target letter. The results were not consistent with a focusing model of attention or selective encoding. Instead, there appears to be a small area in the visual field (about 1 deg of angle) in which all stimuli are processed in detail.     

Some characteristics of selective attention in visual perception determined by vocal reaction time

Previous research had found that the accuracy with which an S could report an indicated letter or target in a briefly exposed multiletter display decreased as the number of irrelevant letters increased, and accuracy increased if the position of the target letter was indicated 150 msec before the display was presented. Iii the present experiment, these variables were reinvestigated using vocal reaction time as the dependent variable. An interpretation of the accuracy measures in terms of differential processing times was supported. The results of the two experiments were discussed in terms of a model of attentional selectivity.     

Do noise masks terminate target processing?

Much recent research in visual information processing has employed a methodology resting on the assumption that a noise mask following presentation of a target stimulus terminates processing of that target. In the absence of appropriate controls, such a methodology is viable only insofar as an erasure theory of masking is valid. However, the phenomena from which the erasure position has derived its strongest support have been subject to alternative theoretical explanations, the most general of which is that of temporal integration. The experiment reported here tested these alternatives. Twelve subjects served in a tachistoscopic study designed to determine whether the same noise field of dots could either erase a degraded target digit or facilitate target identification through temporal integration, under both forward and backward masking paradigms. This was found to be the case, and the results were interpreted as consistent with an integration theory of masking and as incompatible with an erasure conception. The results suggested that efforts to control target processing time through display of a visual noise pattern subsequent to target presentation are methodologically inadequate when devoid of some basic control operations.