Perceptions of accuracy and effort of decision strategies

A critical tenet of cost-benefit theories of decision strategy choice is that decision makers’ perceptions of accuracy and effort determine strategy selection. However, little research has been conducted on human perceptions of decision strategy accuracy and effort. Instead, researchers have substituted deductively derived inferences on strategy accuracy and effort for perceptions in interpreting decision processes. In this study, we used a survey to study perceptions of decision strategies. The results indicate that participants as a group understood the accuracy and effort dimensions of decision strategies. The participants’ perceptions of the accuracy and effort of various decision strategies largely agreed with researchers’ deductions. However, there was substantial variation across individuals in perceptions of various decision strategies and in the composition of efficient frontiers of decision strategies.     

Inferring the importance of arguments: Order effects and conversational rules

This paper investigates order effects in one-sided and two-sided communications. While most theorizing attributes both primacy and recency effects to cognitive processes (e.g., attention decrement), we propose that, in addition, communicative aspects play a central role in the emergence of order effects. We postulate that individuals—drawing on conversational norms—hold expectations about the order in which arguments are presented. Depending on these expectations, arguments presented first or last will be highly influential. The results of three studies indicate that recipients hold such expectations, which lead to order effects. Arguments were most influential when they were presented at a position where participants expected the most important arguments. Moreover, these effects were eliminated when the applicability of participants’ expectations was experimentally reduced.     

Effects of Computer-Based Fluency Training on Concept Formation

This study provides a preliminary analysis of how the techniques of fluency training can be combined with systematic concept instruction to improve the learning of complex verbal concepts. Fluency techniques, which require the learner to respond accurately at high rates, have typically focused on definition learning when teaching concepts. Instructional psychologists, however, recommend multiple exemplar training for conceptual instruction. To examine this issue, 41 undergraduate students completed a computer-based instructional module on logical fallacies. Participants were assigned to one of four groups, with the modules for each group differing only in the type of practice provided—either fluency or practice with either examples or definitions. Examination of posttest scores revealed significantly higher scores for participants in the examples groups than those in the definitions groups, but low experimental power prevented a clear conclusion to be drawn about differences between the fluency and practice groups. Implications of results and several methodological issues relevant to this area of research are discussed.     

Rationality and Judgment

Abstract: Philosophical/epistemic theories of rationality differ over the role of judgment in rational argumentation. According to the “classical model” of rationality, rational justification is a matter of conformity with explicit rules or principles. Critics of the classical model, such as Harold Brown and Trudy Govier, argue that the model is subject to insuperable difficulties. They propose, instead, that rationality be understood, ultimately, in terms of judgment rather than rules. In this article I respond to Brown's and Govier's criticisms of the classical model, and to the “judgment model” they propose in its place. I argue that that model is unable both to distinguish between rational and irrational judgment and to avoid recourse to rules, and is therefore inadequate as an account of rationality, critical thinking, or argument appraisal. More positively, I argue that an adequate account of rationality must include a place for both rules and judgment.     

The interplay of self‐interest and equity in coalition formation

In this paper we investigated the interplay of self‐interest and equity concerns in coalition formation by manipulating the number of units in which the coalition payoff is made available, and by manipulating the way people are allowed to interact. Results of three experiments showed that when the coalition payoff was such that members of each possible coalition could obtain an equitable payoff share, the outcome tended to be coalitions that also maximized the payoff of its members. However, when the payoff was such that people had to make trade‐offs between maximizing their payoff share and obtaining an equitable payoff share, it took longer to form a coalition and it was harder to maintain a coalition. Moreover, depending on the way people were allowed to interact, the final outcome was a coalition that maximized the payoff of its members or a coalition that provided them with an equitable payoff share. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Improving sixth-grade students perceptions of high-effort assignments by assigning more work: Interaction of additive interspersal and assignment effort on assignment choice

Sixth-grade students were exposed to two pairs of mathematics assignments. Assignment Pair A included a high-effort and a moderate-effort assignment, each containing 18 three-digit by two-digit (3×2) problems. Assignment Pair B was similar except the high-effort assignment contained six additional one-digit by one-digit (1×1) problems interspersed following every third 3×2 problem. After exposure to each pair of assignments, students ranked assignments and chose a new assignment for homework. Analysis of Assignment Pair A data showed students preferred the moderate-effort assignment. Analysis of interactions showed that interspersing the additional brief problems to the high-effort assignment caused significantly more students to choose the high-effort assignment for homework and rank it as requiring less effort and time to complete and as being less difficult than the moderate-effort assignment. Results support the hypothesis that a discrete task is a reinforcer and suggest that educators can increase the probability of students engaging in more challenging assignments that require more effort to complete by interspersing additional brief tasks. Applied and theoretical implications are discussed along with future research.     

Agentic and Communal Generative Behavior in Four Areas of Adult Life: Implications for Psychological Well-Being

Fifty mothers and 48 fathers of soon-to-be-independent children were interviewed to determine how agentic and communal generative themes would be reflected in parenting, occupation, volunteer work, and leisure activities. Mothers reported more communal themes (F5, 83 = 2.32, p <.05). Correlations between generativity and well-being resulted in a negative relationship for mothers in parenting communal generative acts (r = –.41, p = .007) and total generative acts (r = –.3, p = .05) as assessed by the interview. Negative correlations also emerged between mothers' well-being and communal generative acts from the Generative Behavior Checklist, (r = –.33, p = .02).     

Irrational Beliefs and the Experience and Expression of Anger

The present study assessed rational-emotive theories of anger by examining the interrelationships of irrational beliefs and the experience and expression of anger. An audiotaped anger-provoking scenario was used to determine whether irrational beliefs predicted state anger and hostile thoughts following provocation. After completing measures of irrational beliefs, trait anger, and anger expression and control, 161 college students were exposed to the provoking stimulus, which was followed by measures of state anger and hostile thoughts. Findings showed both low frustration tolerance and awfulizing were related to trait anger, anger suppression, and outward anger expression. Only low frustration tolerance was related to state anger following provocation. However, awfulizing was associated with all hostile thoughts, and both self-directed shoulds and self-worth were associated with derogatory thoughts about others. Only awfulizing had incremental validity over trait anger, and then, only in the prediction of derogatory thoughts.     

The Perceived Benefits of Religious and Spiritual Coping Among Older Adults Living with HIV/AIDS

Although religious and spiritual beliefs and practices have been frequently associated with greater psychological well-being among illness populations, little is known about the specific benefits individuals perceive they receive from these beliefs and practices. This issue was examined in interviews with 63 older HIV-infected adults. Participants reported a variety of benefits from their religious and spiritual beliefs and practices, including: (1) evokes comforting emotions and feelings; (2) offers strength, empowerment, and control; (3) eases the emotional burden of the illness; (4) offers social support and a sense of belonging; (5) offers spiritual support through a personal relationship with God; (6) facilitates meaning and acceptance of the illness; (7) helps preserve health; (8) relieves the fear and uncertainty of death; (9) facilitates self-acceptance and reduces self-blame. These perceived benefits suggest potential mechanisms by which religion/spirituality may affect psychological adjustment.