The effect of semantics on problem solving is to reduce relational complexity

This article reports a study carried out in order to measure how semantic factors affect reductions in the difficulty of the Chinese Ring Puzzle (CRP) that involves removing five objects according to a recursive rule. We hypothesised that semantics would guide inferences about action decision making. The study involved a comparison of problem solving for two semantic isomorphic variants of the CRP ( fish and fleas ) with problem solving for the puzzle's classic variant (the Balls and Boxes problem; Kotovsky & Simon, 1990 Kotovsky, K. and Simon, H. A. 1990. What makes some problems really hard: Exploration in the problem space difficulty. Cognitive Psychology, 22: 143–183. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Our results showed that the number of moves was reduced by 47% in the fish version and by 51% in the flea version. We discuss these results in terms of semantic inferences and reductions in relational complexity. During the exploratory stage of problem solving participants discover the dependent relations between elements in the puzzle. Initially these relations are processed separately; learning involves generalising the relations within a coherent, interconnected whole that makes up the puzzle's rules. It seems that semantics make it easier for the puzzle's elements to be grouped together within coherent, meaningful wholes, which reduces relational complexity and facilitates problem solving.     

Behaving badly: A perspective on mechanisms of dysfunction in psychopathy

Psychopathy is a personality construct defined by lack of empathy, impulsivity, grandiosity, callous and manipulative interpersonal interactions, and the tendency to engage in socially deviant behavior. Psychopathy has been associated with aggression, recidivism, and other behaviors harmful to others. Individuals high in psychopathy have been thought to be notoriously difficult to treat. Many scholars have suggested that considering mechanisms of dysfunction in psychological difficulties will lead to the development of more effective and efficacious treatments. Fearlessness, lack of empathy, and response modulation difficulties have commonly been discussed as mechanisms of dysfunction in psychopathy. The current review provides a brief overview of examinations of these mechanisms of dysfunction in psychopathy, comments on research methodology, and provides suggestions for remedying potential pitfalls.     

Gender Differences and Cognitive Correlates of Mathematical Skills in School-Aged Children

Published information concerning the influence of gender on mathematical ability tests has been controversial. The present study examines the performance of school-aged boys and girls from two age groups on several mathematical tasks and analyzes the predictive value of a verbal fluency test and a spatial test on those mathematical tasks. More specifically, our research attempts to answer the following two questions: (1) Are gender differences in mathematical test performance among children interrelated with age and (2) do verbal and spatial nonmathematical tests mediate gender effects on mathematical test performance? Two hundred and seventy-eight 7- to 10-year-old children and 248 13- to 16-year-olds were selected from schools in Colombia and Mexico (231 boys and 295 girls). The age effect was found to be significant for all measures, with scores improving with age. Results showed that boys and girls in both age groups scored similarly in most subtests, but that differences emerged in the performance of mental mathematical operations and in resolving arithmetical problems. In the latter – but not in mental math – older boys outperformed older girls, whereas no gender differences were observed in the younger groups. After controlling for age, it was found that the spatial test was, indeed, a significant mediator of gender effects, while the verbal task was not.     

Predictors of needle-sharing behavior among IDUs entering treatment

Abstract

Public funded treatment intake data from 3905 injection drug users were analyzed to identify correlates of reported needle sharing. Respondents included all first admissions to treatment from July 1, 1988 to June 30, 1989 in the city and county of San Francisco. More previous experience in drug treatment predicted lower rates of needle sharing (OR = 0.85, 95% C.I.= 0.79 - 0.92). Young age, cocaine use and white or Hispanic ethnicity predicted higher rates of needle sharing. The finding that drug treatment reduces the frequency of needle sharing in this population has important policy implications; these data support the role of treatment availability in reducing the spread of HIV among injection drug users.     

Associations between assertiveness,psychological well‐being,and self‐esteem in adolescents

This study explored the associations between adolescents’ assertive behavior, psychological well‐being, and self‐esteem. The sample consisted of 1,023 students (14.9 ± .51; 47.6% boys). Two dimensions of the Scale for Interpersonal Behavior (distress and performance), 2 factors of the General Health Questionnaire‐12 (depression/anxiety and social dysfunction), and 2 factors of the Rosenberg Self‐Esteem Scale (positive self‐esteem and negative self‐esteem) were used; data were analyzed using hierarchical linear regression. It was found that (a) the more anxious respondents felt in assertive situations, the less frequently they engaged in these situations; and that (b) both dimensions of assertiveness were associated with psychological well‐being and self‐esteem.     

The Effect of Parental Orientation on the Development of the Child's Orientation

Abstract

(Burt, Sir Cyril. Intelligence and Fertility: The Effect of the Differential Birth Rate on Inborn Mental Characteristics. London: Hamilton, 1946.) Reviewed by Raymond B. Cattell

(Wolff, W. The Personality of the Preschool Child. New York: Grune &; Stratton, 1946. Pp. 341.) Reviewed by Dorothy Tilden Spoerl     

The role of utility value in achievement behavior: the importance of culture

Two studies tested how participants' responses to utility value interventions and subsequent interest in a math technique vary by culture (Westerners vs. East Asians) and levels of initial math interest. Participants in Study 1 were provided with information about the utility value of the technique or not. The manipulation was particularly effective for East Asian learners with initially lower math interest, who showed more interest in the technique relative to low-interest Westerners. Study 2 compared the effects of two types of utility value (proximal or distal) and examined the effects on interest, effort, performance, and process variables. Whereas East Asian participants reaped the most motivational benefits from a distal value manipulation, Westerners benefited the most from a proximal value manipulation. These findings have implications for how to promote motivation for learners with different cultural backgrounds and interests.     

Lightness effects in Delboeuf and Ebbinghaus size-contrast illusions

We examined lightness effects observed in Delboeuf and Ebbinghaus size-contrast illusions. Results of four experiments are reported. Experiment 1 was conducted with Delboeuf-like stimuli and shows that the disk that appears bigger appears either lighter or darker than the disk that appears smaller, depending on the contrast polarity between disks and background. Experiment 2 shows that the direction of these lightness effects is not influenced by the luminance of the size-contrast inducers. Experiment 3 shows that a similar lightness effect is also observed in modified Ebbinghaus size-contrast displays. Experiment 4 tested the presence of the size-contrast illusion in the stimuli used in experiments 2 and 3.     

Processes of change in psychological flexibility in an interdisciplinary group-based treatment for chronic pain based on Acceptance and Commitment Therapy

There are now numerous studies of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) for chronic pain. These studies provide growing support for the efficacy and effectiveness of ACT in this context as well as for the role of ACT-specific therapeutic processes, particularly those underlying psychological flexibility. The purpose of the present study was to continue to build on this work with a broader focus on these processes, including acceptance of pain, general psychological acceptance, mindfulness, and values-based action. Participants included 168 patients who completed an ACT-based treatment for chronic pain and a three-month follow-up. Following treatment and at follow-up, participants reported significantly reduced levels of depression, pain-related anxiety, physical and psychosocial disability, medical visits, and pain intensity in comparison to the start of treatment. They also showed significant increases in each of the processes of psychological flexibility. Most uncontrolled effect sizes were medium or large at the follow-up. In correlation analyses changes in the four processes measures generally were significantly related to changes in the measures of depression, anxiety, and disability. In regression analyses the combined processes were related to changes in outcomes above and beyond change in pain intensity. Although in some ways preliminary, these results specifically support the unique role of general psychological acceptance in relation to improvements achieved by treatment participants. The current study clarifies potential processes of change in treatment for chronic pain, particularly those aiming to enhance psychological flexibility.