What's fine for the gander isn't always good for the goose: Sex differences in self-confidence as a function of ability area and comparison with others

Previous investigators have suggested that women display lower self-confidence than men across almost all achievement situations. The empirical validity of this suggestion is assessed in an experiment testing the following hypotheses: (1) Sex differences in self-confidence depend upon the particular ability area. (2) Women's self-confidence is more influenced than men's by characteristics of the particular individual with whom they compare themselves. Undergraduates completed verbal, interpersonal perceptiveness, spatial-mechanical, and creativity subtests. After each subtest, subjects estimated both their own score and that of the average undergraduate, the average male undergraduate, or the average female undergraduate. Self-confidence was operationally defined in terms of how favorably subjects compared their work to that of their peers. As predicted, women's self-confidence was lower than men's in only the spatial-mechanical and creativity subtests; and for women, but not for men, self-confidence depended upon which peer was specified. It is concluded that situation variables do determine sex differences in self-confidence and that women's self-confidence may be unduly affected by situation-specific comparison cues.The preparation of this article was supported in part by a Doctoral Dissertation Fellowship in Women's Studies awarded to the author by the Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation. Some portions of the study reported in this article were presented at the Western Psychological Association 1976 Convention (Lenney, Note 1) and were briefly abstracted in another article (Lenney, 1977). The author wishes to express her deep appreciation to Walter Mischel and to Sandra Bem for their invaluable consultations on the writing of this article.     

Sex-role acquisition,parental behavior,and sexual orientation: Some tentative hypotheses

It was hypothesized that sexual orientation is not an aspect of sex-role socialization, but is acquired during a sensitive period from birth to 3 years through physical contact with adults. This is tentatively supported by evidence suggesting that (a) sexual orientation is highly resistant to change after adolescence; (b) infants respond to sexual stimulation and discriminate between the sexes; (c) gender identity is fixed between birth and 3 years of age; (d) during their infancy, homosexuals were psychosocially and presumably physically responded to as children of the opposite sex; (e) parents touch boys and girls differently. Stronger support for the hypothesis must be gained from longitudinal observation of parent-infant physical and social interaction and the infant's eventual sexual orientation.     

Conflict,learning, and Piaget: Comments on Zimmerman and Blom's “Toward an empirical test of the role of cognitive conflict in learning”

A brief historical account dealing with the concept of psychic conflict is first presented, followed by an examination of Piaget's equilibrium/equilibration model and the relevance of the concept of conflict to that model. A critical analysis of B. J. Zimmerman and D. E. Blom (Developmental Review, 1983, 3, 18–38) is then presented, after which suggestions are made regarding future directions research efforts pertaining to Piaget's conflict/learning formulation might fruitfully take.     

The Effect of Clear Evaluation Criteria on Sex Bias in Judgments of Performance

Previous research indicates that the work of women is often devalued rela- tive to that of men. Two experiments tested the hypothesis that such sex bias appears when judges follow ambiguous guidelines or criteria in making evalua- tions, but not when they tollow clear evaluation guidelines. In each experiment, male and female undergraduates evaluated a performance that was attributed to either a man or woman (an intellectual test performance in Experiment I; an artistic craft object in Experiment 11). Subjects followed either clear, explicit evaluation criteria or vague, ambiguous criteria. As predicted, female subjects Lyaluated the "female's" performance less favorably than the "male's" only when. criteria were vague. In contast, male subjects showed little evidence of sex bias, regardless of the criteria they followed. Discussion centers upon: (1) possible cognitive processes underlying the observed effects of clear criteria; and (2) potential practical applications designed to alleviate sex bias in naturalistic settings.     

Characteristics of schizophrenics' and neurotics' relatives

A group of adult first-degree relatives of schizophrenics were compared with a control sample of neurotics' relatives on the EPQ, an earlier version of the Eysenck P scale, and on three specially-constructed scales of ‘psychoticism’ (STA, STB and S), derived from a consideration of the clinical symptomatology of schizophrenia and of the ‘borderline syndromes’. Overall differences, in a predictable direction, were confined to the EPQ P scale where schizophrenics' relatives had significantly higher scores, though further analysis suggested that this was due partly to the raised scores of males and partly to very low P-scores seen in male neurotics' relatives. Scores on the STA, measuring schizophrenic ‘symptoms’, were very low in schizophrenics' relatives, due, it was argued, to extremely defensive responding in that group. Results are also reported for two psychophysiological measures, forearm EMG and skin conductance. Here marked group differences were observed, schizophrenics' relatives having significantly higher mean EMG and significantly lower mean skin conductance. This unusual pattern of response was especially evident in a small subgroup of schizophrenics' relatives whose personality profiles tended to differ in the predictable direction, towards greater ‘psychoticism’. The psychophysiological data were highly consistent with other results from our laboratory demonstrating a ‘dissociation’ between different measures of ‘arousal’ in high-P normal subjects and in psychotic patients and it was concluded that measures based on such a conception of the biological basis of schizophrenia offer considerable promise as high-risk indicators of psychopathology.     

THE IMPACT OF ROLE STRESSORS AND PERSONAL RESOURCES ON THE STRESS EXPERIENCE OF PROFESSIONAL WOMEN

This study explored the contributions of role stressors and personal resources in predicting strain symptoms experienced by 117 professional women employed full-time in academia. Results of multiple regression analyses revealed that, while role stressors alone accounted for only a moderate amount of the variance in reported strain symptoms, 51 % of the variance was explained when both stressors and personal resources were combined. Womend, who experienced higher levels of personal control and social support as well as a greater number of roles occupied reported lower levels of strain symptoms. These results support the use of a transactional model of stress in future multiple role research.     

Dimensions of perfectionism and irrational thinking

Several authors have suggested that perfectionism is associated with irrational thinking. The purpose of the present research was to test the hypothesis that various dimensions of perfectionism are related significantly to core irrational beliefs. In Study 1, 102 subjects completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and the Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT). The MPS provides assessments of self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Analyses revealed that self-oriented perfectionism was correlated positively with the IBT high self-expectations and perfect solutions subscales. Socially prescribed perfectionism was correlated significantly with a variety of irrational beliefs including high self-expectations, demand for social approval, dependency, blame proneness, and anxious overconcern. Other-oriented perfectionism was correlated with few irrational beliefs. In Study 2, 130 subjects completed the MPS and the Survey of Personal Beliefs, a new measure of core irrational beliefs. Analyses confirmed that all three perfectionism dimensions were associated with core irrational beliefs. It is concluded that the results constitute general support for the hypothesis that cognitive aspects are important in both personal and social components of perfectionism and that perfectionists are characterized by increased levels of irrational beliefs that may contribute to maladjustment. The findings are discussed in terms of the associations among perfectionism, irrational beliefs, and maladjustment.Gordon L. Flett, Ph.D is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Psychology at York University. Paul L. Hewitt, Ph.D is a clinical psychologist at Brockville Psychiatric Hospital. He is also an assistant professor in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of Ottawa. Kirk R. Blankstein, Ph.D, is an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at Erindale College, University of Toronto. Spomenka Koledin is a former student at Erindale College, University of Toronto. Currently, she is a graduate student in the Master of Arts programme at York University.     

Psychometric properties of attitudinal measures of behavioral treatment in geriatric settings

Internal consistency of two forms of the Geriatric Treatment Acceptability Survey (GTAS) and the Attitudes toward Behavior Analysis Scale (ABAS), a global measure of attitudes toward behavior modification, was evaluated. Alpha coefficients regarding treatment acceptability ratings for GTAS Form H were: (a) wandering 0.94; (b) hoarding 0.96; (c) disruptive behavior 0.92; (d) property destruction 0.95; and (e) aggression 0.94. Internal consistency for Form NH was: (a) wandering 0.96; (b) hoarding 0.97; (c) disruptive behavior 0.96; (d) property destruction 0.97; and (e) aggression 0.76. Internal consistency of the ABAS resulted in alpha coefficients of 0.90 (total score); 0.87 (ethics and humaneness); and 0.76 (use). These measures appear useful in assessing older adults, nursing home patients' and geriatric nursing staffs' global and specific attitudes regarding the use of behavioral treatments with older adults. Further research is needed to establish psychometric constructs assessed by the instruments and sensitivity to detecting change in attitudes based on educational or clinical interventions.     

Measuring rationality independent of social desirability

The development of a test to measure Elli's concept of rationality is described. In the first study discussed, a 58-item test is developed to measure rationality, and the reliability and convergent validity of the test is described. In a second study, the discriminant validity of the test is examined. An attempt is also made to reduce social-desirability content in the test by eliminating items most highly correlated with a Social Desirability Scale. The final 44-item test is found to be high in both reliability and validity. The factor structure of the test is also examined.     

Dual effects of response blocking following avoidance learning

It was shown that either enhanced or decreased avoidance responding by rats could be produced by the same response blocking procedure occurring after avoidance training. The particular result produced depended on (1) the duration of the blocking trial and (2) when during the retention interval the blocking trial occurred. Results were interpreted in terms of a memory reactivation explanation and implications for the therapeutic uses of extinction were discussed.