An Ecologically Differentiated, Multifactor Model of Adolescent Network Orientation

The paper presents a test of an ecologically differentiated model of social network orientation for adolescents that distinguished between different social network reference groups (family, peers, and nonfamily adults). The model was tested in two consecutive studies. Study 1 describes initial model development (N = 120). Study 2 presents a confirmatory factor analysis with a second sample (N = 430) to replicate the factor structure developed in Study 1. Results supported a three-factor model of network orientation that differentiated between network reference groups. Analyses of concurrent and predictive validity indicated that orientation to network reference groups was differentially related to the perceived quality and frequency of support from members of respective social network groups. Group differences (gender, race) regarding network orientation to different network reference groups were consistent with studies of other social network processes. Implications for the study of the network orientation and the study of social networks more generally are discussed.     

On the time course of negative priming: Another look

In two experiments, the pattern of persistence of negative priming effects across delay intervals of 500 and 2,500 msec was assessed using a within-subjects, random sequencing of delays. Neill and Valdes (1992; Neill, Valdes, Terry, & Gorfein, 1992) have argued that a within-subject experimental design is required for decay of negative priming to be seen, in contrast to results reported elsewhere (e.g., Tipper, Weaver, Cameron, Brehaut, & Bastedo, 1991) showing stable negative priming effects across delays. In neither experiment was substantial evidence of decay detected, raising questions for the notion that suppression necessarily declines across brief temporal intervals and for the assertion that episodic retrieval is the sole source of negative priming.     

CULTURAL VARIATION IN PROBABILISTIC THINKING: ALTERNATIVE WAYS OF DEALING WITH UNCERTAINTY*

This study reviews research on cultural differences in “probabilistic thinking” and presents some intra- and inter-cultural findings. Strong differences are shown to exist between people raised under Asian and British cultures on measures of this ability. These differences were found to out-weigh any influence of subculture, religion, occupation, arts/science orientation and sex. Generally, Asians were found to adopt a less finely differentiated view of uncertainty both numerically and verbally than did the British sample. Numerical probabilities assessed by the Asians were more extreme and less realistic than those assessed by the British sample. Possible antecedents of these differences are outlined, and cultural differences in probabilistic thinking are shown to be compatible with decriptions of cultural differences in business decision making. It is argued that there are qualitative cultural differences in ways of dealing with uncertainty.     

Sex differences in knowledge of occupational dimensions across four age levels

The purpose of the present study was to better understand the development of children's occupational knowledge, as assessed by their ability to give ratings to jobs along various dimensions that were similar to ratings given by adults, and to investigate differences in boys' and girls' ratings. Overall, younger students gave higher ratings to the jobs pictured than did older students. Also, females gave higher ratings to three of the four dimensions investigated. Girls rated traditionally female jobs higher on respect and service, while boys rated traditionally male jobs higher on respect and service. Both males and females agreed that more education would be required for the female jobs pictured, but that males would be paid more money for the male jobs pictured.     

Women in Technology: A Program to Increase Career Awareness

Most women work to help support themselves and their families. Unfortunately young women are not often encouraged to explore occupational options that offer increased economic mobility. This article describes a program designed to develop awareness of nontraditional technical careers for women, careers that require less than four years of postsecondary education. Attended by guidance counselors and math and science teachers, the conference explored the psychological implications of nontraditional choices as well as provided information about these occupations. The article also discusses funding, program development and design, and evaluation.     

“Kramer vs. Kramer” vs. Kramer: A child's rights ignored

The media continue to exercise power in transmitting values. “Kramer vs. Kramer” made film history recently by claiming an impressive number of Oscars. Written reviews and televised acclamations repeatedly cited the authentic and sympathetic treatment of the parents. However, consistent with society's present attitude toward children, the ethical and legal rights of the child were not addressed. The plot underscored the paternalistic and utilitarian manner by which we approach problem-solving and decision-making which directly involve and affect children.     

Robust estimation of ability in the Rasch model

Estimating ability parameters in latent trait models in general, and in the Rasch model in particular is almost always hampered by noise in the data. This noise can be caused by guessing, inattention to easy questions, and other factors which are unrelated to ability. In this study several alternative formulations which attempt to deal with these problems without a reparameterization are tested through a Monte Carlo simulation. It was found that although no one of the tested schemes is uniformly superior to all others, a modified jackknife stood out as the best one in general, it was also super efficient (more efficient than the asymptotically optimal estimator) for tests with forty or fewer items. It is proposed that this sort of jackknifing scheme for estimating ability be considered for practical work.This research was funded through a grant from the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (78-NI-AX-0047) to the Bureau of Social Science Research, Howard Wainer, Principal Investigator. We would like to thank Ronald Mead, Anne Morgan and James Ramsay for kind, generous, and invaluable help at various stages of the project.     

Will both spouses have careers?: Predictors of preferred traditional or egalitarian marriages among university students

This study examined the significance of work preference variables, family preference variables, socialization influences, and needs for achievement and affiliation in predicting preferred traditional versus egalitarian marriages among university students. Results showed that, overall, male university students preferred traditional marriages while female university students preferred egalitarian marriages. Sex also interacted significantly with the following variables: desired family task involvement, desired job task involvement, and mother's family involvement. The data suggest that a perspective encompassing a wide variety of variables (including work, family, and socialization considerations) may be useful for conceptualizing individuals' preferences for traditional or egalitarian marriages. Implications of the results for management and career counseling are discussed.     

What's fine for the gander isn't always good for the goose: Sex differences in self-confidence as a function of ability area and comparison with others

Previous investigators have suggested that women display lower self-confidence than men across almost all achievement situations. The empirical validity of this suggestion is assessed in an experiment testing the following hypotheses: (1) Sex differences in self-confidence depend upon the particular ability area. (2) Women's self-confidence is more influenced than men's by characteristics of the particular individual with whom they compare themselves. Undergraduates completed verbal, interpersonal perceptiveness, spatial-mechanical, and creativity subtests. After each subtest, subjects estimated both their own score and that of the average undergraduate, the average male undergraduate, or the average female undergraduate. Self-confidence was operationally defined in terms of how favorably subjects compared their work to that of their peers. As predicted, women's self-confidence was lower than men's in only the spatial-mechanical and creativity subtests; and for women, but not for men, self-confidence depended upon which peer was specified. It is concluded that situation variables do determine sex differences in self-confidence and that women's self-confidence may be unduly affected by situation-specific comparison cues.The preparation of this article was supported in part by a Doctoral Dissertation Fellowship in Women's Studies awarded to the author by the Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation. Some portions of the study reported in this article were presented at the Western Psychological Association 1976 Convention (Lenney, Note 1) and were briefly abstracted in another article (Lenney, 1977). The author wishes to express her deep appreciation to Walter Mischel and to Sandra Bem for their invaluable consultations on the writing of this article.