The effects of graphemic,phonetic, and semantic relationships on access to lexical structures

The question of whether or not lexical information is accessed directly from a visual code or by a process of phonetic mediation was investigated in three lexical decision experiments. Phonetic similarity influenced decisions about visually presented words only when they were to be discriminated from orthographically regular nonwords. When consonant strings or random letter strings were used as nonwords, phonetic similarity effects were absent, and graphemic similarity exerted a powerful effect while evidence of semantic priming was found. This pattern was interpreted as evidence of direct lexical access, which is probably the normal processing mode for skilled readers. Phonetic coding, when it occurs, may be a storage strategy rather than a part of the addressing chain for lexical structures.     

An alternative perspective on sex differences in organizational settings: The process of legitimation

This article takes a sociological approach to a problem that has usually been considered as a psychological phenomenon. It addresses the problem of male—female interactions in work situations utilizing the organizational concepts of division of labor and legitimacy. Traditional explanations evoking sex-role socialization are reviewed and rejected for purposes of experimentation and intervention. An alternative argument, focusing on the structural arrangements of organizational settings, is presented as an explanation for behavioral effects previously attributed to inherent sex differences. The results of a pilot study are briefly described, and directions for further experimentation and possible intervention strategies are suggested.The bibliographic search and initial conceptualization of this research was supported by a grant from the Ford Foundation under the auspices of the Center for Research on Women at Stanford University. We are grateful to Miriam Rosen for much of the bibliographic work. The pilot study was supported in part by funds from the Guggenheim Foundation and by a grant from the Spencer Foundation. We also wish to thank Richard Torres and Christie Timberlake for their invaluable assistance on this project.     

Measurement error in direct observations: a comparison of common recording methods

Videotapes of three brief duration, three medium duration and three long duration types of stereotyped behaviour (of eight severely retarded children) were analysed to provide a criterion record of the true percentage duration of the behaviour. The criterion record was compared with the records produced by four time-sampling methods: a whole-interval method, two partial-interval methods and a momentary time-sampling method. As predicted, the whole-interval method grossly underestimated and the partial-interval methods grossly overestimated the true percentage duration of the behaviour, except when the duration of individual responses was much longer than the observation interval. Momentary time-sampling was not an errorless method but was consistently superior to the other methods.The implications of these findings for the detection of treatment effects by direct observations are discussed.     

Developmental trends in distractibility: Is absolute or proportional decrement the appropriate measure of interference?

Since baseline performance varies with age, diminished interference effects found with increasing age do not provide evidence for a developmental trend in distractibility unless their relationship to baseline performance is known. In the present study, baseline difficulty was varied in two speeded classification experiments to investigate whether interference effects due to irrelevant information could best be characterized by absolute or proportional decrement models. In Experiment 1, first graders, third graders, and adults sorted cards on the basis of square size, both in the presence and absence of extraneous stimulus information. In Experiment 2, first graders and adults sorted cards on the basis of the density of a regular array of dots and two kinds of irrelevant information were used. Robust interference effects were found which declined with age. Manipulating discriminability of the relevant stimulus dimension resulted in large changes in sorting time, but interference effects did not vary with baseline difficulty. These results were interpreted as strongly supporting both an absolute decrement model and a developmental trend in distractibility.     

Nursing: Significance for spiritual care

Nurses can be seen to contribute significantly to the spiritual objectives and programs in hospitals and other health agencies under religious auspices. One impressive example is nursing involvement with and cooperation in the pastoral care program at North Carolina Baptist Hospital in Winston-Salem. At this hospital the nurse is both an assistant to and a coworker with the chaplain and functions in many ways as facilitator and supporter in his spiritual mission.     

The effect of phonemic processing on the retention of graphemic representations for words and nonwords

The three experiments reported in this study were each conducted in two phases. The first phase of Experiment 1 involved a same-different comparison task requiring “same” responses for both mixed-case (e.g., MAIN main) and pure-case (e.g., near near) pairs. This was followed by Phase 2, a surprise recognition test in which a graphemic effect on word retention was indicated by the superior recognition accuracy obtained for pure-case compared with mixed-case pairs. The first phases of Experiments 2 and 3 involved pronounceability and imageability judgment tasks, respectively. Graphemic retention was assessed by contrasting recognition accuracy for letter strings presented, during Phase 2, in their original Phase 1 case, with letter strings presented, during Phase 2, in. a graphemically dissimilar new case. The experiments provided evidence that there was minimal retention of the graphemic representations from which the phonemic representations of words are generated and, further, that the locus of this effect is probably postlexical. Nonwords were recognized more accurately than words in all three experiments. The latter result was attributed to differences between nonwords and words in both graphemic retention and semantic distinctiveness.     

The EPPI family therapy outcome study

Information was evaluated from 1014 families seen in an eight-year period by therapists connected with the Department of Family Psychiatry at Eastern Pennsylvania Psychiatric Institute in Philadelphia. Statistical analysis revealed several factors that had some predictive value in relation to outcome of therapy; these were race, past psychiatric hospitalization, type of presenting family problem, and number of sessions held. There was a rather good chance of improvement being noted by the therapist if the family stayed in treatment for eight or more sessions. About 90% of the cases were seen for less than 20 interviews. Only about 3% were seen for longer than 35 interviews. The vast majority of EPPI cases were short-term. Black families tended to present different problems from white, and therapy was terminated with blacks sooner than for whites. About 35% of families terminated after one to two interviews, and another 30% after three to seven sessions. Since families tended to benefit most after eight or more sessions, the need for better methods or techniques to engage families is highlighted.The research was supported in part by a Career Development Award from the University of California, San Francisco, to the first author.     

Alcoholics in inpatient,short-term interactional group psychotherapy: an outcome study

The differential outcome of 100 psychiatric inpatients distinguished by the presence/absence of secondary alcoholism was examined in shortterm closed group psychotherapy. Alcoholics did not differ from the general sample in outcome, but displayed distinct active/aggressive personality features. Group outcome was not affected by the presence/absence of alcoholic members.