Self-Monitoring negative statements

We examined the effects of a self-monitoring program on reducing the frequency of negative statements of a student with mild mental retardation who was enrolled in a self-contained classroom at a middle school. A changing criterion design was used within a multiple baseline design across two classroom periods. Additionally, the frequency of positive statements was reported. The results showed a decrease in the number of negative statements, and an increase in the number of positive statements. Maintenance data collected up to 8 weeks after the program ended indicated that the student continued to emit positive rather than negative statements. The use of this procedure to decelerate undesirable behavior is discussed.     

Potentiation of the pressor response to stress by tolbutamide in dogs

Tolbutamide has previously been shown to amplify the pressor effects of “exogenous” catecholamines in conscious dogs, possibly due to sensitization of the α₁-adrenoreceptor-mediated vasoconstriction. The objective of this study was to examine if tolbutamide also amplifies the pressor effects of “endogenous” catecholamines released during psychological stress (classical Pavlovian aversive conditioning). Experiments were conducted in β-adrenoreceptor-blocked (propranolol, 1 mg/kg, i.v.) conscious dogs (n=4) trained in classical aversive conditioning. Conditioning was accomplished by following a tone (CS+) with a 1/2 second shock; another tone (CS-) was not followed by any shock and served as control. With saline pretreatment, aversive conditioning (i.e., CS+) increased mean arterial pressure (MAP) only by approximately 4.7% when compared to CS-, whereas with tolbutamide (45 mg/kg, i.v.) pretreatment, the increase in MAP induced by CS+ beyond what was induced by the CS- (approximately 6.2%) was significantly (p<0.05) larger than that with saline pretreatment. In isolated canine femoral arterial segments (n=4), the vasoconstrictor effect of phenylephrine (an α₁-agonist) at 5×10^?6M (which was the EC₅₀ value) was amplified by 2×10^?2M of tolbutamide from 54.0±2.0% to 66.9±2.1%. In conclusion, tolbutamide amplifies the pressor effects of “endogenous” catecholamines in conscious dogs, possibly by sensitization of the α₁-adrenoreceptor-mediated vasoconstriction. This mechanism of action is novel and has not been reported with other agents.     

Shape from stereo: A systematic approach using quadratic surfaces

We used quadratic shapes in several psychophysical shape-from-stereo tasks. The shapes were elegantly represented in a 2-D parameter space by the scale-independentshape index and the scale-dependentcurvedness. Using random-dot stereograms to depict the surfaces, we found that the shape of hyperbolic surfaces is slightly more difficult to recognize than the shape of elliptic surfaces. We found that curvedness (and indirectly, scale) has little or no influence on shape recognition.     

Tensorial basis to the constancy of perceived object extent over variations of dynamic touch

Subjects wielded occluded rods, with or without attached masses, and reported the distances reachable with their distal tips. Experiments 1–3 compared wielding about the wrist, the elbow, and the shoulder. Experiments 4 and 5 compared free wielding, using the whole arm, with wielding only about the wrist. The two comparisons, respectively, were of spatial and temporal variations in the rod’s rotational inertia. Perceived extent was found to be constant in both comparisons. This constancy was tied to the inertia tensorI _ij defined about a point that remains a fixed distance from the object during wielding&#x2014;an invariant of the spatially and temporally dependent patterning of mechanical energy impressed upon the tissues of the body. Discussion focused on the reciprocal action and perception capabilities of multisegmented limbs, the tensorial relations in the neurobiology of dynamic touch, and the strategy of understanding perceptual constancy through invariants.     

Mental Arithmetic: A Componential Analysis of Speed-of-Processing Across Monolingual,Weak Bilingual,and Strong Bilingual Adults

Two experiments compared rates of solving simple and complex addition and multiplication problems in groups of speakers of French or English in Experiment 1 (n = 35) and Spanish or English in Experiment 2 (n = 84). Subjects were divided into groups of English unilinguals, weak bilinguals, and strong bilinguals according to their performance on a naming task. In both experiments, simple problems consisted of two single-digit numbers. At least three single-digit numbers were used for complex problems in Experiment 1 and double-digit numbers in Experiment 2. Mean solution times, particularly for complex problems, were lowest for the monolingual group, followed in turn by the weak bilingual and strong bilingual groups, but these differences were not statistically reliable in either experiment. In Experiment 2, however, componential analyses of solution times indicated that strong bilingual subjects were slower at executing the carry operation when solving complex problems, relative to the two remaining groups. Results were interpreted in terms of the relationship between bilingualism and the representation and processing of numerical information.     

Disordered Communication and Grieving in Deaf Member Families

When a deaf child is born to hearing parents, a grieving process is initiated in the parents. Unresolved grieving over their child's deafness often makes it difficult for hearing parents to accept the importance of signing, thus increasing the child's problems — further source of grief for these parents. Clinical illustrations are provided of (1) the reciprocal relationship between disruption of the mourning process and disturbance of communication between family members, and (2) the transmission of the dysfunctional relationship between hearing parents and deaf children to the subsequent relationship between the deaf children, when they reach adulthood, and their hearing children.     

Intermittency in human manual tracking tasks

We confirm Craik's (1947) observation that the human manual1y tracking a visual target behaves like an intermittent servo-control1er. Such tracking responses are indicative of "sampled" negative-feedback control but could be the result of other, continuous, mechanisms. Tracking performance therefore was recorded in a task in which visual feedback of the position of the hand-held joystick could be eliminated. Depriving the subjects of visual feedback led to smoother tracking and greatly reduced the signal power of their responses between 0.5-1.8 Hz. Their responses remained intermittent when they used feedback of their own position but not of the target to track a remembered (virtual) target. Hence, intermittency in tracking behavior is not exclusively a signature of visual feedback control but also may be a sign of feedback to memorized waveforms. Craik's (1947) suggestion that the intermittency is due to a refractory period following each movement was also tested. The errors measured at the start of each intermittent response, during tracking of slow waveforms, showed evidence of a small error deadzone (measuring 0.7 cm on the VDU screen or 0.80 degrees at the eye). At higher target speeds, however, the mean size of starting errors increased, and the upper boundary of the distribution of starting error was close to that expected of a refractory delay of approximately 170 ms between responses. We consider a model of the control system that can fit these results by incorporating an error deadzone within a feedback control loop. We therefore propose that the initiation of intermittent tracking responses may be limited by a positional error deadzone and that evidence for a refractory period between successive corrective movements can be satisfied without evoking an explicit timing or sampling mechanism.     

Is the cerebellum a smith predictor?

The motor system may use internal predictive models of the motor apparatus to achieve better control than would be possible by negative feedback. Several theories have proposed that the cerebellum may form these predictive representations. In this article, we review these theories and try to unify them by reference to an engineering control model known as a Smith Predictor. We suggest that the cerebellum forms two types of internal model. One model is a forward predictive model of the motor apparatus (e.g., limb and muscle), providing a rapid prediction of the sensory consequences of each movement. The second model is of the time delays in the control loop (due to receptor and effector delays, axonal conductances, and cognitive processing delays). This model delays a copy of the rapid prediction so that it can be compared in temporal register with actual sensory feedback from the movement. The result of this comparison is used both to correct for errors in performance and as a training signal to learn the first model. We discuss evidence that the cerebellum could form both of these models and suggest that the cerebellum may hold at least two separate Smith Predictors. One, in the lateral cerebellum, would predict the movement outcome in visual, egocentric, or peripersonal coordinates. Another, in the intermediate cerebellum, would predict the consequences in motor coordinates. Generalization of the Smith Predictor theory is discussed in light of cerebellar involvement in nonmotor control systems, including autonomic functions and cognition.