Long-term memory and retrieval at ages 2, 3, 4

Two experiments are reported examining the contents and accessibility of a subset of the knowledge represented in long-term memory by very young children. In Experiment 1, children aged 2 to 4 were asked in a production task to name items commonly found in particular rooms in a house, and then to verify the appropriate locations of a set of miniature replicas of household items in a dollhouse. In Experiment 2, object context was manipulated to observe if further external context improves or changes production. Children 3 and 4 years old were asked to produce appropriate room items under one of three conditons: either presented no room objects as in the first experiment, or given room objects highly- or less-frequently associated in the first study.Very young children revealed considerable knowledge in this domain, and even at the youngest ages, core defining information was retrieved. It was equally clear, however, that young children know much more than they can produce, that there is noticeable improvement in ability to retrieve information over this age range, and that additional external object context does not necessarily facilitate retrieval from long-term memory.     

Strategies in processing new versus old information by children

This study investigated how children linguistically encode new versus old information as a function of age on a Receptive and an Expressive Task. Kindergarteners and third-graders were presented with picture pairs. Members of each picture pair were identical except for one obvious detail, the new information. While there was little difference between the two age groups on the Receptive Task, statistically significant differences were found on the Expressive Task. Results were discussed in terms of children's cognitive/perceptual strategies in encoding new versus old information.     

Computer-based career planning for adults

The Career Information and Planning System is described. Designed for officers of the United States Army, it is a computer-based counselling and guidance system which aims to enhance the career planning skills of adults.     

Attitude Comparison: Is There Ever a Bandwagon Effect?1

Will exposure to others' attitudes merely stimulate conformity to the observed norm? We predicted-and observed in an opinion polling experiment-that learning others' attitudes can effect a small, but significant, intensification of attitude responses.     

Undermatching: a reappraisal of performance on concurrent variable-interval schedules of reinforcement

The extant data for pigeons' performance on concurrent variable-interval schedules were examined in detail. Least-squares lines relating relative pecks and time to the corresponding relative reinforcements were obtained for four studies. The between-study group slopes for time and pecks and five of seven within-study group slopes from individual studies were less than 1.00. This suggested the generality that pigeons respond less to the richer reinforcement schedule than predicted by matching. For pecks, a nonparametric test for distribution of points also supported this concept of undermatching (to the richer reinforcement schedule). In addition, using mean squared error as the criterion, a cubic curve fit the peck proportion data better than any line or other polynomial. This indicates that the relation between peck and reinforcement proportions may be nonlinear.     

Program report: “time-in”: A two-year project for the reduction of severe maladaptive behaviors in a center for persons with developmental disabilities

The results of a two-year project designed to organize a unit for 18 developmentally disabled clients with severe behavior disorders (primarily aggression) were presented. Providing tightly organized structure and focusing on appropriate resident behavior resulted in substantial gains. Noted changes included significant decreases in aggression, total number of target behaviors, required uses of restrictive procedures, and residents' injuries. Decreases were also noted in staff injuries and turnover. Subjectively, the unit became a better place to work and live. Difficulties encountered with developing, maintaining, and generalizing the project were discussed.     

A survey of the use of facilitated communication in community agencies serving persons with developmental disabilities

Service providers to individuals with developmental disabilities at seven North Dakota agencies were surveyed on their current and past use of facilitated communication (FC). Perceived validity and effectiveness of FC were also assessed. Seventeen percent of the 177 direct care and supervisory staff surveyed reported that they had never heard of FC, 36% were aware of but had never used FC, 28% had previously used FC, and 18% currently used the technique despite overwhelming experimental evidence that FC is not a valid means of communication for people with disabilities. The results indicated that respondents who had previously used FC, but did not do so currently, gave it the lowest ratings of validity, usefulness, and likability, while current users gave FC the highest ratings. Current users had the fewest years of experience in the field of developmental disabilities. The majority of current users said guardian approval should not be required prior to the use of FC, whereas the majority of past users and non-users said that guardian approval should be required. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Alcohol Abuse in Later Life: Issues and Interventions for Counselors

The authors discuss risk factors for late life alcohol abuse and characteristics that differentiate early‐ and late‐onset abusers. Problems in identification, diagnosis, assessment, and treatment of older abusers are reviewed. A case example illustrates the dynamics of effective treatment with this population.     

Gay and Lesbian Parents: No Longer a Paradox

The authors discuss parenting as a normative developmental issue for gay and lesbian individuals. Issues and choices that affect decisions concerning parenting, implications for counselors, and suggestions for research are discussed.