Effect of delay on recognition decisions: Evidence for a criterion shift

Recent evidence indicates that in intermixed recognition testing of different stimulus classes, people can apply different decision criteria (a criterion shift) to stimulus classes distinguished by the study-test delay (Singer, Gagnon, & Richards, 2002), but not by a conspicuous strength manipulation (Stretch & Wixted, 1998b). In an attempt to reconcile these differences, we applied Singer et al.'s text retrieval method to word recognition. People first studied blocked items from each of five categories. After a delay, five new category lists were presented. After each one, the participants recognized intermixed targets and distractors from the current category and one of the earlier ones. At delays of up to 40 min, the answering criteria for immediate and delayed categories were indistinguishable. At delays of 2 days, in contrast, however, both yes-no and confidence-rating data indicated that more lenient criteria were applied to delayed than to immediate test items. This suggests that people can use the delay between study and test to flexibly adjust the decision criteria of word recognition.     

Decoding human brain activity during real-world experiences

The human brain evolved to function and survive in a highly stimulating, complex and fast-changing world. Attempting to ascertain the neural substrates of operating in naturalistic contexts represents a huge challenge. Recently, however, researchers have begun to use several innovative analysis methods to interrogate functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data collected during dynamic naturalistic tasks. Central to these new developments is the inventive approach taken to segregating neural activity linked to specific events within the overall continuous stream of complex stimulation. In this review, we discuss the recent literature, detailing the key studies and their methods. These analytical techniques can be applied in a wide range of cognitive domains and, thus, offer exciting new opportunities for gaining insights into the brain bases of thoughts and behaviours in the real-world setting where they normally occur.     

Deconstructing episodic memory with construction

It has recently been observed that the brain network supporting recall of episodic memories shares much in common with other cognitive functions such as episodic future thinking, navigation and theory of mind. It has been speculated that 'self-projection' is the key common process. However, in this Opinion article, we note that other functions (e.g. imagining fictitious experiences) not explicitly connected to either the self or a subjective sense of time, activate a similar brain network. Hence, we argue that the process of 'scene construction' is better able to account for the commonalities in the brain areas engaged by an extended range of disparate functions. In light of this, we re-evaluate our understanding of episodic memory, the processes underpinning it and other related cognitive functions.     

An experimental investigation of the cognitive vulnerability to depression

The present study employed an experimental design, to examine the role of metacognitive processing in the prevention of relapse to depression. Eighty remitted depressed participants were randomly allocated to receive training in the metacognitive style of rumination, distraction, acceptance or no training control prior to a negative mood induction. Rumination prolonged the intensity of the negative mood consistent with no training, whereas both distraction and acceptance reduced the intensity of the negative mood. Changes in attitudes were only found in the acceptance condition, as participants in this condition reduced negative attitudes towards negative experiences. These results are consistent with information processing theory, and imply that acceptance-based preventative interventions may operate by both reducing the intensity of sad moods and altering one's attitudes towards temporary moments of sadness.     

The effect of visual threat on spatial attention to touch

Viewing a threatening stimulus can bias visual attention toward that location. Such effects have typically been investigated only in the visual modality, despite the fact that many threatening stimuli are most dangerous when close to or in contact with the body. Recent multisensory research indicates that a neutral visual stimulus, such as a light flash, can lead to a tactile attention shift towards a nearby body part. Here, we investigated whether the threat value of a visual stimulus modulates its effect on attention to touch. Participants made speeded discrimination responses about tactile stimuli presented to one or other hand, preceded by a picture cue (snake, spider, flower or mushroom) presented close to the same or the opposite hand. Pictures of snakes led to a significantly greater tactile attentional facilitation effect than did non-threatening pictures of flowers and mushrooms. Furthermore, there was a correlation between self-reported fear of snakes and spiders and the magnitude of early facilitation following cues of that type. These findings demonstrate that the attentional bias towards threat extends to the tactile modality and indicate that perceived threat value can modulate the cross-modal effect that a visual cue has on attention to touch.     

WITHIN‐TRIAL CONTRAST: WHEN IS A FAILURE TO REPLICATE NOT A TYPE I ERROR?

Vasconcelos, Urcuioli, and Lionello-DeNolf (2007) report the results of five experiments that fail to replicate the results of our within-trial contrast study (Clement, Feltus, Kaiser, & Zentall, 2000) and suggest that our results may represent a Type I Error. We believe that this conclusion is not warranted because (a) there is considerable evidence in support of the effect and (b) the amount of training that they gave to their pigeons prior to test may not have been sufficient to observe the effect reliably. We suggest that when sufficient training is provided, reliable contrast can be found.     

Plasma interleukin-6 and soluble IL-6 receptors are associated with psychological well-being in aging women.

OBJECTIVE: This study tested the hypothesis that psychological well-being would predict lower plasma levels of inflammatory factors in aging women. DESIGN: One hundred thirty-five women ages 61-91 years (M = 74.5 years) participated in this study. After completing self-administered questionnaires in their homes, participants stayed overnight at the General Clinical Research Center (GCRC) at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Blood samples for cytokine analyses were obtained in participants' homes after the GCRC visit. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Psychological well-being and ill-being, history of health problems, and health behaviors were assessed via self-administered questionnaires. Detailed medical history and concurrent health measures were obtained during the GCRC stay. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to determine interleukin-6 (IL-6) and soluble IL-6 receptor (sIL-6R) concentrations in plasma. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Regression analyses showed that plasma IL-6 levels were lower in women scoring higher on positive relationships, whereas sIL-6R levels were lower in women scoring higher on purpose in life, even after a variety of sociodemographic and health factors were controlled. These outcomes, combined with the absence of significant links with other measures of well-being and ill-being, suggest selective patterns of association between later life inflammatory processes and psychological factors, particularly those focused on positive ties with others and purposeful engagement.