Application of a family systems approach to working with people affected by HIV disease – two case studies

HIV infection, with its particular modes of transmission, affects relationships, interrupts the normal life-cycle and brings different challenges to patients and their contacts as they pass through the asymptomatic and symptomatic phases to the terminal stages of illness. This paper describes a family systems approach to therapy with people affected by HIV disease, illustrated by two case examples.     

A comparison of same- and cross-age interactions in mixed-age groups

This study investigated the types of interactions occurring within and between age groups in mixed-age preschool classes. Using point-time sampling procedures, the peer interactions of 30 3- to 5-year-old preschool children enrolled in two preschool classes were recorded. Interactions were coded according to six categories and according to the role of the target child in the interaction. Contrary to popular assumptions about interactions in mixed-age groups, results indicated that for both the older and younger children the types of interactions occurring across age groups did not differ significantly from interactions within same-age groups. Symmetrical rather than asymmetrical relationships across age groups were found in the exchange of nurturance, direction and information.     

Personality and spirituality: comparative TATs of high-achieving Rajneeshees

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was administered to followers of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh in their commune in central Oregon. The Rajneeshee subjects had been high achievers (with advanced degrees and/or previous incomes greater than 30,000 dollars in 1984 dollars). Later, TATs were administered to persons matched for gender, age, education, and occupation but not involved in new religions. The final matched sample included 24 men and 20 women, half of whom were Rajneeshees. TATs were coded for a variety of formal variables as well as personality ratings. Though the analysis showed no between-group differences on most variables, significant mean differences occurred on ratings of unusual conditions, quest, and narcissism, with Rajneeshees higher than comparison subjects. Gender differences in personality variables were not conspicuous. Factor analysis established a strong productivity element. Card 16 (the blank card) provided the greatest number of differences.     

Development of the appearance-reality distinction

Young children can express conceptual difficulties with the appearance-reality distinction in two different ways: (1) by incorrectly reporting appearance when asked to report reality (“phenomenism”); (2) by incorrectly reporting reality when asked to report appearance (“intellectual realism”). Although both phenomenism errors and intellectual realism errors have been observed in previous studies of young children's cognition, the two have not been seen as conceptually related and only the former errors have been taken as a symptom of difficulties with the appearance-reality distinction. Three experiments investigated 3- to 5-year-old children's ability to distinguish between and correctly identify real versus apparent object properties (color, size, and shape), object identities, object presence-absence, and action identities. Even the 3-year-olds appeared to have some ability to make correct appearance-reality discriminations and this ability increased with age. Errors were frequent, however, and almost all children who erred made both kinds. Phenomenism errors predominated on tasks where the appearance versus reality of the three object properties were in question; intellectual realism errors predominated on the other three types of tasks. Possible reasons for this curious error pattern were advanced. It was also suggested that young children's problems with the appearance-reality distinction may be partly due to a specific metacognitive limitation, namely, a difficulty in analyzing the nature and source of their own mental representations.     

Cortical alpha rhythm, biofeedback, and the determinants of subjective state

A critical assumption in the rationale for the clinical application of voluntary control over central nervous system (CNS) activity is that there exists a direct relationship between specific CNS activities and specific subjective mood states. The experiment reported here was based on the idea that a joint manipulation of both cognitive and physiological (i.e., alpha electroencephalographic [EEG]) variables would provide information required for an explication of the processes involved in subjective mood change. Three main variables were considered in the present experiment. First, the instructions were designed to induce a "set" or expectations for either positive or negative changes in subjective mood. Second, the type of feedback (alpha or not alpha) was varied. Those in the not-alpha feedback condition received feedback contingent on the absence of alpha activity, whereas those in the alpha feedback condition received feedback contingent on the presence of alpha activity. Third, an estimate of each individual's baseline alpha density was obtained, and on this basis subjects were classified as high-baseline or low-baseline subjects. Baseline alpha density, alpha density during training, and subjective mood were all considered as continuous variables. The results of the present study indicate that biofeedback of the cortical alpha rhythm is neither a sufficient nor a necessary condition for changes in subjective mood. In addition, the type of instructions designed to set subjects for positive or negative alterations in subjective states is predictive of changes in subjective state reported during alpha biofeedback training as well as of success at controlling and changing EEG during feedback training. The data presented here permit a direct examination of the actual relationship of EEG changes to changes in subjective mood state. Similar shifts in subjective mood state can be obtained with either increases or decreases in alpha activity. Further, both positive and negative subjective experiences can be associated with increases in alpha activity.     

Condom Use on Spring-Break Vacation: The Influence of Intentions,Prior Use,and Context1

Triandis' theory of interpersonal behavior was used to analyze factors related to condom use among Canadian spring-break vacationers in Daytona Beach, Florida, who had engaged in coital activity with existing relationship partners (N= 46) or casual partners (N= 121). Intention to use condoms explained 36% of the variance in condom use with relationship partners, but only 10% with new partners. An additional 43% was explained by prior condom use and conditions facilitating condom use. Conditions facilitating condom use had the strongest influence on condom use, with new partners followed by prior condom use and intentions. The latter two variables exerted both direct and indirect influences on condom use.     

An economic model of scientific activity and truth acquisition

We wish to thank the following for helpful comments and discussion: Jim Cox, Hartry Field, David Hull, Mark Isaac, Isaac Levi, Vann McGee, Mike Phillips, Holly Smith, Meredith Williams, Michael Williams, and other audience members at Northwestern University and Western Washington University.     

An analysis of speech perception in word deafness

A patient with a rather pure word deafness showed extreme suppression of right ear signals under dichotic conditions, suggesting that speech signals were being processed in the right hemisphere. Systematic errors in the identification and discrimination of natural and synthetic stop consonants further indicated that speech sounds were not being processed in the normal manner. Auditory comprehension improved considerably however, when the range of speech stimuli was limited by contextual constraints. Possible implications for the mechanism of word deafness are discussed.