Social cognitive predictors of prosocial behavior toward same and alternate race children among white pre-schoolers

Social cognitive predictors of 36 White preschoolers' (18 boys, 18 girls) tendencies to say they would act prosocially toward White and African-American children were examined. White preschoolers completed measures of their tendency to engage in prosocial behaviors directed toward White and African-American children, positive racial beliefs about White and African-American persons, and race schematicity. Consistent with previous research examining prosocial behavior in preschoolers, girls were more likely than boys to say they would act prosocially. White preschoolers' age in months did not correlate significantly with their tendencies to engage in prosocial behaviors toward White children. However, age in months was negatively correlated with White preschoolers' inclinations to direct prosocial behaviors toward African-American children. Consistent with an emerging literature concerning the role of social cognitive factors in young children's race schema development, White preschoolers' race schematicity was significantly predictive of their tendencies to say they would engage in prosocial behaviors toward African-American children. Patterns of results partially replicate previous prosocial behavior research, and demonstrate the importance of social cognitive variables on young children's prosocial behaviors. This research was undertaken as part of a graduate program in psychology at the University of Wyoming by the first author under the direction of the second author. The authors express gratitude to Karen Bartsch, Ph.D., and Bernita Quoss, Ph.D., and Jesse Barber, Sylvia Jones, and Nicole Martin of the University of Wyoming and to Nancy Eisenberg, Ph.D., of Arizona State University.     

Some Developmental Implications of Structural Aspects of Preschoolers' Relations with Classmates

To gain insight into children's peer relations and their developmental significance, it is important to know not only how many relations children have but also to consider the structure of these relations. To demonstrate this, we used a multiple-study design in which we applied social network analyses to sociometric ratings and nominations from 1,082 4- to 5-year-old children in 83 school classes. Results showed that isolation in the classroom was more strongly associated with the choices that were given than those that were received. Gender plus the negative behavioral characteristics, aggressiveness and rejection, were the most important cues for social clustering. The structure of positive choices reflected the formation of friendship networks, whereas negative choices tended to be given directly to individual “problem” children. Finally, structure indices tapped aspects of children's relations that were not reflected in the traditional two-dimensional classification system and provided additional explanatory power for predicting developmental outcomes.     

Motivation, Cognition, and Action: An Analysis of Studies of Task Goals and Knowledge

This paper begins by analysing the nature of cognition and of motivation, especially as they relate to the operation of the subconscious. The interdependence of cognition and motivation is demonstrated. This interdependence is then illustrated through an analysis of studies on goal setting and task strategies (task knowledge) in relation to task performance. Three types of relationships have been found: direct, separate effects of goals and strategies; interactions between goals and strategies (moderation); and the mediation of goal effects by strategies. It is argued that there is really one underlying model that accounts for all of these findings. There are two paths to performance, one motivated by goals and another motivated by other factors. Each is or can be associated with relevant task knowledge. 'Direct' goal effects occur when the subjects already possess relevant task knowledge, but that knowledge is not measured. (If it were measured, there would be mediation.) Direct strategy effects occur when subjects are motivated to discover or use relevant strategies by (unmeasured) motives that are not a product of the performance goal. Moderation occurs when there is no task knowledge tied to the goals but knowledge derives from other sources, which combines with goals to produce performance. Mediation occurs when goals produce measured task knowledge, which, when controlled, vitiates the goal effect. This model suggests ideas for further research.     

Theology, Science, and Postmodernism: Responding to Stanley Grenz

This article responds to Stanley J. Grenz's Templeton Lecture, “Why Do Theologians Need to Be Scientists?” published in the June 2000 issue of Zygon (Grenz 2000). In the first part I outline my reasons for finding the kind of theological reflections in which Grenz engages worthy of attention by noting my disagreement with the view that a sufficient response to theological issues can be formulated on the basis of an examination of our biological nature. I assert, in that connection, the autonomy of reason as a way of investigating and understanding the world. In the second part I respond directly to Grenz by explaining my disagreement with the postmodern critique of science upon which he relies and his adherence to Christian eschatology as an answer to the conundrums into which, he posits, we are drawn as a result of that critique. I note that I agree with Grenz, however, that the activity of valuing is necessarily a forward‐looking Godlike endeavor that is not derivable from science. In the third part I suggest that we must be open to the investigation of the possible existence of an objective realm of value and that, in any case, rejection of the postmodern critique of science in many cases pro‐vides a sound basis for the disciplined resolution of factual questions that frequently lie at the base of disagreements about values.     

A computer-based system providing pictorial instructions and prompts to promote task performance in persons with severe developmental disabilities

This study was aimed at assessing a new computer-based system to promote task performance in three adults with severe developmental disabilities. The new system, which was small and battery powered, could provide auditory and vibratory prompts in addition to pictorial instructions concerning the task steps. To control for the effects of the computer-based system, the subjects were also exposed to a card system. The results showed that the subjects had a significantly higher level of correct performance on the tasks presented with the computer-based system than on the tasks presented with the card system. Two of the subjects, moreover, seemed to prefer the computer-based system to the card system. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Motivating Political Participation Among Youth: An Analysis of Factors Related to Adolescents’ Political Engagement

Prior research has identified political efficacy and political interest as strong predictors of political participation, but few studies have examined these two attitudes in tandem or compared their relative importance vis‐à‐vis political participation. Drawing on the expectancy‐value model of motivation, we begin to address this research gap while also considering several related issues. Our sample includes a diverse group of high school students in grades 10, 11, and 12 (N = 422) from the midwestern United States. Through quantitative analyses of participants’ survey data, we found that political interest (a central aspect of value) and political efficacy (closely related to expectancy) predicted participants’ expected future political participation, controlling for background characteristics—and that political interest was a particularly strong predictor. In addition, we identified political‐engagement differences on various demographic measures, such as grade level. We also found a significant interaction between political interest and internal political efficacy, suggesting that high levels of both attitudes can have an especially positive effect on adolescents’ political participation. We discuss the implications of these findings for researchers and educators interested in fostering political engagement among youth.     

Specific job search self‐efficacy beliefs and behaviors of unemployed ethnic minority women

This two‐wave field study draws from social cognitive theory to investigate the specific job search self‐efficacy beliefs and behaviors of unemployed ethnic minority women in the Netherlands. We go beyond prior job search research that predominantly used white samples and conceptualized job search self‐efficacy and behavior as global, unidimensional constructs. We found that networking self‐efficacy and Internet self‐efficacy were the main predictors of ethnic minority women’s job search behaviors. Moreover, the more time they spent on contacting employment agencies and looking at job ads the more job offers they received. Finally, time spent on job ads was more positively related to job offers when job ad self‐efficacy was high and time spent on networking only predicted job offers when networking self‐efficacy was high.     

Conservatism and “copy-if-better” in chimpanzees (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes</Emphasis>)

Social learning is predicted to evolve in socially living animals provided the learning process is not random but biased by certain socio-ecological factors. One bias of particular interest for the emergence of (cumulative) culture is the tendency to forgo personal behaviour in favour of relatively better variants observed in others, also known as the “copy-if-better” strategy. We investigated whether chimpanzees employ copy-if-better in a simple token-exchange paradigm controlling for individual and random social learning. After being trained on one token-type, subjects were confronted with a conspecific demonstrator who either received the same food reward as the subject (control condition) or a higher value food reward than the subject (test condition) for exchanging another token-type. In general, the chimpanzees persisted in exchanging the token-type they were trained on individually, indicating a form of conservatism consistent with previous studies. However, the chimpanzees were more inclined to copy the demonstrator in the test compared to the control condition, indicating a tendency to employ a copy-if-better strategy. We discuss the validity of our results by considering alternative explanations and relate our findings to the emergence of cumulative culture.     

Contact with bisexual individuals reduces binegativity among heterosexuals and lesbian women and gay men

Although binegativity, the stigmatization of bisexuality, is prevalent among heterosexual and lesbian and gay communities, little research has addressed how the quantity and quality of intergroup contact affect binegativity. Drawing on intergroup contact theory, this study examined contact with and attitudes toward bisexuals among heterosexual undergraduates, heterosexual adults, and lesbians and gay men. Knowing more bisexuals (quantity) predicted more positive attitudes toward and decreased intergroup anxiety with male and female bisexuals. A multilevel structural equation model indicated that contact quality simultaneously predicted higher perceived stability of female bisexuality (but not male bisexuality) and tolerance of and less intergroup anxiety with male and female bisexuals when contact quantity was controlled for. This research suggests that both quantity and quality of contact with bisexuals predicts improved intergroup attitudes. Implications for future research on reducing binegativity are discussed.     

Predictors and outcomes of job search behavior: The moderating effects of gender and family situation

This study explored differences in the antecedents and consequences of job search behavior depending on gender and family situation in a large, nationwide sample of the Dutch population. Using Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behavior (TPB), we found no gender differences in the antecedents of job seeking. However, family situation did affect the relations in the TPB, such that personal attitude was a slightly weaker, and perceived social pressure a stronger predictor of job seeking for individuals with families than for singles. Concerning the consequences, job search behavior significantly predicted the chances of finding (new) employment, but not job satisfaction in the new job and the level of agreement between the obtained and wanted job.