Combined functional and causal connectivity analyses of language networks in children: a feasibility study

Instead of assessing activation in distinct brain regions, approaches to investigating the networks underlying distinct brain functions have come into the focus of neuroscience research. Here, we provide a completely data-driven framework for assessing functional and causal connectivity in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data, employing Granger's causality. We investigate the networks underlying story processing in 17 healthy children (8f, 9m, 10.4+/-2.8 years, 6.5-15.4 years). Extensive functional connectivity exists between brain regions, including some not detected in standard random effects analyses. Causal connectivity analyses demonstrate a clear dominance of left-sided language regions for both forward and backward interactions with other network nodes. We believe our approach to be useful in helping to assess language networks in the normal or pathological setting; it may also aid in providing better starting estimates for the more hypothesis-driven approaches like structural equation or dynamic causal modeling.     

Social dilemmas and leadership

Subjects acted in a social dilemma situation. Two variables were experimentally manipulated: use and variance. One third of the subjects thought that the others in their group were overusing the common resource, one third thought that the others were underusing it, and the remaining third were led to believe that the others were using the resource optimally. Moreover, half of the subjects thought that the others took relatively similar harvests (low variance) while the other half thought the others differed greatly (high variance). Support was found for Homans' assumption that the internal function of leaders is to allocate outcomes equitably over group members, whereas their external function is to deal efficiently with the external environment. The results indicated that more subjects in the overuse condition voted to give up free access to the resource and to hand over the management of the resource to a leader than in the other me conditions. Moreover, more subjects in the high variance condition voted for a leader than in the low variance condition. Over all conditions, furthermore, subjects preferred themselves most as prospective leader. In addition, group members who were similar to the subject, competent at the task and concerned for the group were preferred as Leader. When subjects acted as leader they were more moderate in withdrawing harvests from the resource than as regular group member. Moreover, leaders allocated outcomes equitably to the group members.     

Status protection in high status minority groups

The present study investigated the conditions under which group members try to obtain membership in another group, or are motivated to protect their group membership when they risk losing it. One hundred and twenty-nine high school students participated as subjects in a laboratory experiment. Subjects were divided into two groups, allegedly on the basis of their problem solving style. The relative size (minority/majority) and status position (high/low) of the subject's group, as well as the permeability of group boundaries (permeable/impermeable) were manipulated as independent variables in a 2×2×2 factorial design. The main dependent variables were the extent to which individuals valued their group membership, and identified with their group. The main results are that membership in a group with high status is considered more attractive than membership in a low status group, This differential evaluation of high and low status groups is more extreme in minority groups than in groups of majority size. Furthermore, when group boundaries are permeable, members of high status minorities show relatively strong ingroup identification, indicating a strengthening of ties with their own group when an alternative (majority) group affiliation is possible. However, our expectation that permeable group boundaries would result in diminished ingroup identification in low status minorities was not confirmed. Some additional data suggest that unsatisfactory membership in a low status group is resolved in a different way.     

On the Doctrine of Justification

The doctrine of the justification of the ungodly is central to the Christian confession. Justification is to be understood through the four Reformation exclusive particles: Christ alone, grace alone, word alone and faith alone. Justification addresses the relationlessness which is produced by sin as limitless self-realization. Related in himself as Trinity, God in Christ and Spirit continues in relation to the godless, thereby establishing a wealth of relation which is righteous. This account of justification is illuminating both for fundamental issues in anthropology and ethics, and for current ecumenical controversies concerning salvation, sacraments and ministry.     

Explaining Proenvironmental Intention and Behavior by Personal Norms and the Theory of Planned Behavior1

The value of personal norms (Schwartz, 1977) for proenvironmental behavior has been demonstrated in previous studies (e.g., Vining & Ebreo, 1992), but not in addition to the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen & Madden, 1986). In the present study, this combination was investigated by means of a mail survey among a sample of 305 Dutch citizens who were enlisted to participate in a behavioral change intervention program on environmentally relevant behavior. Personal norms appear to increase the proportion of explained variance in 5 intentions and 4 self-reported measures of performed environmentally relevant behaviors beyond that explained by three of the theory of planned behavior constructs (i.e., attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control). Issues evoked by these results are discussed.     

Overpayment: Perceived qualifications and financial compensation

In this study expectancy and equity theory were compared. An experiment was carried out on the effect of overpayment. Overpayment was manipulated by varying perceived input (perceived qualifications) and received outcome (financial compensation). The experiment consisted of a 2 × 3 design: two levels of payment (4 guilders p.h. and 8 guilders p.h.) and three levels of perceived qualifications (high, medium, low). Sixty-six subjects were hired through the students placement service to decode personality questionnaires. Overpayment by manipulation of monetary rewards did not lead to greater production, as was hypothesized by Adams' equity theory (1965). As far m overpayment has been manipulated by perceived qualifications for the job the data confirmed equity theory. Several other theories (e.g. expectancy theory: Lawler, 1968b) can explain both results.     

Attribution of leadership in a resource management situation

In a resource management game we investigated how regular group members respond to a leader who promotes group success or fails to do so, while operating in a predictable or totally unpredictable environment. The subjects (N = 110) were confronted with a bogus leader who purportedly took decisions on behalf of the whole group. Performance of the leader and Predictability of the environment were manipulated by means of a 2 × 2 factorial design. As predicted, a failing leader received weaker endorsement than a successful leader (Performance main effect). The Performance × Predictability interaction effect was ascribed to two circumstances: (a) As predicted by the attributional approach of leadership (Calder, 1977; Pfeffer, 1977), endorsement of a successful leader was weaker in the Unpredictable than in the Predictable environment. However, (b) endorsement of a failing leader was not significantly weaker in the Predictable than in the Unpredictable environment. Additional data showed that regular group members' attributions played a mediating role.