Brain potentials as indices of orthographic and phonological interaction during word matching

The interaction between orthographic and phonological codes in a same-different judgment task was studied by requiring subjects to decide if two visually presented words either looked alike or rhymed. Word pairs were selected from four different lists. Words rhymed and looked alike, rhymed but did not look alike, looked alike but did not rhyme, or neither looked alike nor rhymed. Reaction time and percent error increased whenever there was a conflict between the orthography and phonology of the words. The N200 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP) indicated that subjects were capable of detecting phonological differences between words within 260 ms from the presentation of a word pair. The amplitude of the N200s also varied with the degree of mismatch between words. N200s were largest when both the orthography and phonology mismatched, of intermediate amplitude when either orthography or phonology mismatched, and smallest when both orthography and phonology matched. P300 latency was consistent with reaction time, increasing whenever there was a conflict between the two codes. Taken together, behavioral measures and the ERP data suggest that the extraction of the orthographic and phonological aspects of words occurs early in the information processing sequence.     

Remembering left-right orientation of pictures

In a study of recognition memory for pictures, we observed an asymmetry in classifying test items as "same" versus "different" in left-right orientation: Identical copies of previously viewed items were classified more accurately than left-right reversals of those items. Response bias could not explain this asymmetry, and, moreover, correct "same" and "different" classifications were independently manipulable: Whereas repetition of input pictures (one vs. two presentations) affected primarily correct "same" classifications, retention interval (3 hr vs. 1 week) affected primarily correct "different" classifications. In addition, repetition but not retention interval affected judgments that previously seen pictures (both identical and reversed) were "old". These and additional findings supported a dual-process hypothesis that links "same" classifications to high familiarity, and "different" classifications to conscious sampling of images of previously viewed pictures.     

The effects of labor shortages on starting salaries for sex-typed jobs

An experimental simulation was conducted to examine potential differences in sensitivity to forces to supply and demand among male and female sex-typed jobs. Respondents faced with a labor shortage favored raising salaries for male sex-typed jobs, but favored alternatives to salary increases for female sex-typed jobs at entry and middle levels. Findings are discussed in terms of occupational sex stereotypes and differing perceptions regarding the urgency and difficulty of filling vacancies in male and female positions.Portions of this study were presented at the National Academy of Management Meetings, Chicago, 1986.     

Alcohol and drug use in stressful times: The influence of the masculine role and sex-related personality attributes

In times of stress, men and women sometimes turn to the use of alcohol and drugs as an avenue for relieving their discomfort and distress. One explanation of this finding implicates traditional male tendencies as predisposing factors. The purpose of the present investigation was to study how the relationship between stress and substance use is moderated (1) by the masculine role, as measured by the Masculine Role Inventory; and (2) by socially desirable and undesirable masculine-instrumental and feminine-expressive personality attributes, as measured by the Extended Personal Attributes Questionnaire. The results indicated that during stressful episodes men characterized by socially undesirable instrumental personality attributes reported using tranquilizers and sedatives. By contrast, it was found that during stressful times, women characterized by success preoccupation reported less use of mind-altering drugs and more use of tranquilizers-sedatives. In addition, it was found that socially desirable expressive attributes served to buffer the impact of stressful experiences on women's use of alcohol.A preliminary report of these data were presented at the 1985 annual meeting of the Southwestern Psychological Association, Austin, Texas. Gratitude is extended to Toni Falbo for her assistance with this research.     

Marriage patterns among Havik Brahmins: A 20-year study of change

Data on 94 women gathered during four field trips to a village located in the Malnad area of Karnataka form the basis of this examination of changes in Havik Brahmin marriage patterns over a 20-year period. Four case studies of marriages and two case studies of single women illustrate social change, particularly the influence of increased education, marriage age, and marriage choice. These case studies illustrate that, with an increase in marriage age and an increase in educational level, women have increased independence as daughters, brides, wives, and mothers. Concurrent with this is a decreased emphasis on ritual. Women have become assertive as they have perceived options. The socialization of women into learned helplessness and absolute dependence on men is in the past. Where women were perceived and perceived themselves as forever childlike, they now have grown to maturity. Men have to acknowledge women's educational achievements, especially when sisters achieve more than their brothers. With the recognition of feminine achievement has come increased independence for women. Mothers who have been bitter about their own limitations have encouraged daughters to achieve. With a change from an ascribed status of men as superior to achieved status based on merit has come increased opportunities for women.     

Relation of sex and gender role to love,sexual attitudes,and self-esteem

One theory of love (J. A. Lee, The Colors of Love: An Exploration of the Ways of Loving, Don Mills, Ontario: New Press, 1973) assumes at least six different attitudinal orientations toward love. Based on Lee's approach, recent research (e.g., C. Hendrick & S. Hendrick, “A Theory and Method of Love,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1986, 50, pp. 392–402) has found consistent sex differences in love attitudes. Other research has found comparable sex differences in sexual permissiveness and other sexual attitudes. The present study explored the possibility that gender role orientation might be related to differences in love and sexual attitudes. A sample of 286 college students completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), Love Attitudes Scale, Sexual Attitudes Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Correlational analyses revealed many significant associations among love and sexual attitudes, self-esteem, and masculinity and femininity. Subjects were also classified according to gender role as androgynous, masculine, feminine, or undifferentiated, according to BSRI scores. Analyses of variance showed effects for both sex of subjects and gender role orientation on several of the dependent measures. The pattern of the results suggested that sex-stereotyped couples may have difficulties in romantic relationships because of the discrepancies in their love and sexual attitudes. An argument was made in support of the recent trend toward a multidimensional concept of gender role orientation.     

The influence of individual and family characteristics upon career aspirations of girls during childhood and adolescence

The term pioneer is used for girls aspiring to male-dominated careers. This longitudinal study assesses the career choices of 68 middle-class girls during childhood (8–13 years, Phase I) and again during adolescence (13–18 years, Phase II), and investigates the relation between pioneering career choice and personal and family characteristics. Subjects were originally selected for exposure vs nonexposure to exogenous hormones during pregnancy. In childhood, pioneers were somewhat older, were more often persistent tomboys, had higher IQs, and had parents with higher educational attainment. In adolescence, paternal education was the only variable that showed the same relation to career choice. Adolescent girls who had wanted to get married at the time of the childhood assessment were now less likely to choose pioneering careers. Adolescent pioneers also had higher educational aspirations than nonpioneers and less likely anticipated being married within ten years than nonpioneers. A number of statistically borderline relationships were also observed: pioneers had somewhat fewer older brothers than nonpioneers, less often came from homes in which traditional femininity was stressed, and more frequently had mothers who had worked outside the home throughout their daughters' school years than mothers of nonpioneers. Prenatal exposure to exogenous sex hormones was not related to career choice during either childhood or adolescence.     

A review of employee evaluation procedures and a description of “high potential” executives and professionals

This article reviews standard personnel selection procedures with a focus on the personal interview, the assessment center, and standard psychological tests. A testing system is described that has been used by companies to select executives and professionals. Finally, psychological characteristics of “high potential” executives and professionals are described.