Developmental aspects of the generation effect

Children from Grades 2, 3, 5, and 7 (7.6, 9, 11, and 13 years of age, respectively) were required to generate or study exemplars of semantic categories (semantic orientation) or rhymes to stimulus words (phonetic orientation). Each child then participated in one of three retention tests: free recall, standard recognition, and rhyme recognition. The results indicated that the developmental emergence of the “generation effect” (C. E. McFarland, Jr., T. J. Frey, & D. D. Rhodes, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1980, 19, 210–225; N. J. Slamecka & P. Graf, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 1978, 4, 592–604) was dependent on both encoding orientation and the type of retention task employed. A substantial generation effect first emerged (7-year-olds) for standard recognition in the semantic condition. A similar effect for recall was evident for 9-year olds, but not for younger children. Internal stimulus generation became a strong memory facilitator for phonetically encoded items at age 11 for standard recognition, but not until age 13 for recall. The results of the rhyme recognition test indicated that internal generation facilitated “transfer-appropriate processing” (C. D. Morris, J. D. Bransford, & J. J. Franks, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1977, 16, 519–533) only for seventh graders (age 13). The processes underlying this developmental pattern were discussed.     

Pooling peripheral information: Averages versus extreme values

Suppose, as an idealization, that sensory intensity is coded in peripheral channels as identical Poisson pulse trains with intensity parameter a power function of signal intensity. Discrimination models based on either an average count computed over a fixed time or an average time computed for a fixed count per channel have difficulty in fitting the Weber function ($\text{ΔI}\text{I}$ versus I) if the free parameters are constrained to ranges determined from other experiments (magnitude estimation, reaction time). Here we study a different decision rule, namely, the most extreme observation in either the counting or timing mode. Our extremum-counting model, but not two timing ones, accounts very nicely for the Weber function. However, the ROC curves for these extremum models, which agree in shape with data of Green and Luce, yield estimates for the intensity parameter which are much larger than predicted by the power function growth used to calculate ΔI and about twice as large as those estimated from reaction time data collected in the same experiment.     

Helping as a function of feeling state and nature of the helping behavior

The proposition that positive feelings increase helping because they increase the perception of personal power implies that if the person prefers not to help, positive feelings would decrease helping. This was tested in an experiment that varied feelings and pleasantness of the helping task. False meter feedback was used to manipulate feelings, and an indirect check on the manipulation showed that it was effective in varying feelings. As expected from the notion that positive feelings allow the person to feel free to refuse to help, there was an interaction between feelings and pleasantness of the helping task; positive feelings produced less helping than neutral or negative feelings when the helping task was unpleasant.This research was supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation.     

Significant Content of Group Counseling Sessions with Culturally Deprived Ninth Grade Students

Some examples are presented of the problems and concerns that were verbalized and discussed during group counseling sessions with 4 groups (36 students) of culturally deprived white ninth grade boys and girls. The examples cited indicate that among these culturally deprived students there is a general lack of identification with school, a pattern of employing inappropriate means to gain acceptance and recognition, a philosophy of life geared toward immediate material gratification, and parental models that do not result in positive parental identification. There seems to be little hope for these students in their present situation unless they receive some help and support from interested others outside their group. It is suggested that group counseling, for considerably more than the 15 sessions given these students, may afford a means by which the school and the counselor can help the culturally deprived find an effective way to deal with the dilemma in which they find themselves.     

An observable property equivalent to a choice model for discrimination experiments

The choice model considered by Luce in an earlier work is stated in terms of unobservable parameters. In this paper a consequence of the model, involving only observables, is shown to be equivalent to the model.This work was supported in part by National Science Foundation Grants NSF G-8864 and NSF G-17637 to the University of Pennsylvania.     

Development of Adolescent Problem Behavior

The developmental model of adolescent antisocial behavior advanced by Patterson and colleagues (e.g., Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992) appears to generalize the development of a diverse set of problem behaviors. Structural equation modeling methods were applied to 18-month longitudinal data from 523 adolescents. The problem behavior construct included substance use, antisocial behavior, academic failure, and risky sexual behavior. Families with high levels of conflict were less likely to have high levels of parent–child involvement. Such family conditions resulted in less adequate parental monitoring of adolescent behavior, making associations with deviant peers more likely. Poor parental monitoring and associations with deviant peers were strong predictors of engagement in problem behavior. These constructs accounted for 46% of the variance in problem behavior. Although association with deviant peers was the most proximal social influence on problem behavior, parental monitoring and family factors (conflict and involvement) were key parenting practices that influenced this developmental process.     

A method of matrix analysis of group structure

Matrix methods may be applied to the analysis of experimental data concerning group structure when these data indicate relationships which can be depicted by line diagrams such as sociograms. One may introduce two concepts,n-chain and clique, which have simple relationships to the powers of certain matrices. Using them it is possible to determine the group structure by methods which are both faster and more certain than less systematic methods. This paper describes such a matrix method and applies it to the analysis of practical examples. At several points some unsolved problems in this field are indicated.     

Serial Fluctuations in Exercise Behavior as a Function of Social Support and Efficacy Cognitions1

The present study investigated the role of social support provisions and efficacy cognitions in adherence to a prescribed exercise regimen. A generalized estimating equations approach was employed to estimate regression coefficients via an iterative weighted least squares algorithm. Findings indicated that when employed as time-varying covariates, the social provisions of reassurance of worth, attachment, and, to a lesser extent, guidance were significantly associated with intraindividual fluctuations in program adherence. Specifically, individuals with a greater sense of self-worth were more likely to adhere throughout the program, whereas the effects of subject's perceptions of greater attachment, although generally related to sustained adherence, fluctuated over time. Findings also suggest that individuals perceiving higher levels of guidance were less likely to adhere during the early and concluding stages of the exercise program. Although synchronous covariation existed between efficacy cognitions and attendance, self-efficacy was not predictive of intraindividual change in attendance over time. Results are discussed in regard to the importance of self-referent processes and social provisions in exercise adherence, and the utility of the proposed generalized estimating equations approach to the analysis of longitudinal data.     

Discomfort with space and motion: A possible marker of vestibular dysfunction assessed by the situational characteristics questionnaire

Space and motion discomfort (SMD) refers to the situational specificity of symptoms occurring in some patients with vestibular dysfunction, such as those with balance disorders and some with panic disorder. SMD occurs in situations characterized by inadequate visual or kinesthetic information for normal spatial orientation. We report the results of two studies of the construct validity of the Situational Characteristics Questionnaire (SitQ), which has two subscales, both of which measure SMD: the SMD-I and SMD-II. In Study 1, the SitQ was administered to members of a self-help group for balance disorders, a psychiatric sample consisting of patients with panic disorder, nonpanic anxiety disorders, depression, and a sample of normals. SMD levels were the highest in the self-help balance group, next to the highest in the panic groups, and lowest in the remaining groups. In Study 2, the SitQ was administered to otolaryngological patients with vestibular dysfunction and to patients with hearing loss. SMD levels were higher in the vestibular patients. Data on internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and convergent and discriminant validity are presented. The SitQ, particularly the SMD-II, is recommended for quantifying space and motion discomfort in patients with anxiety and/or balance disorders.Study 1 was funded by MH 40757. Study 2 was funded by a grant from the Upjohn Company and MH 19816.