Speech, "inner speech," and the development of short-term memory: effects of picture labeling on recall

Three experiments explored the effect of overt speech on children's use of "inner speech' in short-term memory (STM). Experiments 1 and 2 compared recall of a series of pictured objects when 5- and 11-year-olds either labeled stimuli at presentation or remained silent. Use of inner speech was assessed by manipulating word length of the picture names (Experiment 1) or phonemic similarity (Experiment 2). Word length and phonemic similarity had greater effects in the older children and when pictures were labeled at presentation. These tendencies were such that 5-year-olds were sensitive to word length and phonemic similarity only with labeling. Experiment 3 compared labeling by the child with labeling by the experimenter in 5-year-olds. There were no significant differences with respect to overall performance or effects of word length and phonemic similarity. It is suggested that speaking or listening to speech activates and internal "articulatory loop,' and that such activation is especially important when the child's ability to use inner speech in STM has not fully developed.     

Determinants of information-seeking behavior

Two studies examined situational determinants of choice among anagram tests that varied both in difficulty and in diagnosticity (the information they provided about one's own ability). In both studies, subjects worked on a preliminary anagram test before making their choices. Study 1 manipulated level of performance on the preliminary test. Results showed that high performance led to preferring more difficult and more diagnostic tests. In Study 2, subjects were either paid or not paid for their performance on the preliminary test. Results showed that pay led to a preference for more diagnostic tests. Unexpectedly, results of both studies showed that although difficulty and diagnosticity were defined independently of one another, they were not perceived as such. Thus, high diagnostic tests were perceived as more difficult; more difficult tests were perceived as more diagnostic; and the difference between high and low diagnostic tests in perceived diagnosticity and choice of items (high diagnostic tests had higher scores on both measures) were more pronounced among more difficult tests. Motivational as well as cognitive interpretations of the results were discussed.     

Variations in reflex blink-rate during visual-motor tasks

The influence of the performance of various tasks on the reflex blink rate has been investigated repeatedly, but the results obtained have been somewhat contradictory. More recently, it has been suggested that the reflex blink rate may be a considerable factor in the accuracy with which visual-motor tasks are performed. The aim of the present experiment was to attempt to obtain further evidence on both these questions.

The experiment was carried out in two parts. The main part was done in the laboratory, while a validating experiment was carried out on the road. In the laboratory, subjects were required t o steer a pencil along a moving track which varied in difficulty. The difficulty of the response was varied by using a direct control on some trials and a velocity control on others. Blink rate, errors, and control measurements were recorded throughout. In the road experiment, cine films were taken of the driver's eyes while driving in heavy traffic and in open country.

The results of both experiments show:

(a) That there are marked individual differences in blink rate, the relative order of which is maintained in spite of variations in the actual blink rate.

(b) That there is no relationship between the accuracy with which a particular individual carries out a task of this sort and his blink rate. The rapid “blinker” is no more and no less likely to be accurate than the infrequeiit I “blinker.”

(c) That the actual blink rate for all individuals varies inversely with the difficulty of the task and the amount of control movement necessary. The blink rate decreases as the necessity for detailed visual control of movement increases. Blink rates when driving a car in heavy traffic, or when steering along an oscillating track, are considerably lower than when driving in open country or when following a straight track.

(d) That the adjustment of the blink rate to the difficulty of the task is achieved not only by an alteration in overall blink rate, but also by a change in the distribution of blinking. The blink rate is approximately constant under constant conditions, but when the task is varying in difficulty, blinking occurs just before and just after periods of maximum difficulty, but is completely inhibited during the periods of maximum difficulty itself.     

Clinical Differences Exist Between Patients Fulfilling the 1988 and 1994 Case Definitions of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

Despite the existence of 2 different case definitions for chronic fatigue syndrome, little data exist to evaluate how each performs. We evaluated the symptom patterns of patients fulfilling either the more demanding 1988 or the less demanding 1994 case definitions of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome over an 11-year period from 1991 to 2001. Factor analysis identified 3 factors: muscular–skeletal, viral, and sleep:memory symptom factors accounting for significant variation in the data. Further discriminant analysis showed that the first 2 factors and a self-reported measure of decrease in activity alone gave 91% accuracy in the placement of patients into their respective case definitions. This analysis did indicate that both case definitions were capturing the same broad group of patients. However, the patients in the 1994 group do not endorse infectious-type symptoms as often or to the same degree of severity as those in the 1988 group. This may mean that infection as a cause of CFS is more likely in patients fulfilling the earlier, more demanding case definition.     

Empirically Supported Complexity

Abstract— Over the last 10 years, evidence-based practice in psychology has become synonymous with a particular operationalization of it aimed at developing a list of empirically supported therapies. Although much has been learned since the emergence of the empirically supported therapies movement, its restrictive definition of evidence (excluding, for example, basic science as a source of evidence to be used by clinicians) is problematic, and the assumptions inherent in its nearly exclusive focus on brief, focal treatments for specific disorders are themselves not generally supported by the available data. Recent meta-analytic data support a more nuanced view of treatment efficacy than one that makes dichotomous judgments of empirically supported or unsupported, suggesting the need for a more refined concept of evidence-based practice in psychology.     

Learning social attitudes: children's sensitivity to the nonverbal behaviors of adult models during interracial interactions

White children show marked ingroup race preferences and a relative devaluation of Black people. The origin of these early interracial attitudes is to a large extent still unclear. The studies here test the possibility that preschool-aged children are particularly sensitive to the nonverbal behaviors performed by White adults during interracial interactions. In Study 1, children were shown a video displaying an interaction between a White and a Black adult. Across conditions, the White adult's verbal behaviors were either friendly or neutral, whereas his nonverbal behaviors showed either easiness (e.g., closeness, high eye contact) or uneasiness (e.g., distance, avoidance of eye contact). Results revealed that participants shaped their attitudes toward the Black target accordingly, independently from the White adults' verbal behaviors. Study 2 replicated the basic findings and demonstrated that the observed effects generalized to other Black targets. Results are discussed in relation to current approaches to understanding the formation of racial attitudes among children.     

Neuroticism, negative affect, and negative affect instability: Establishing convergent and discriminant validity using ecological momentary assessment

Few investigations have examined the role of affective instability within a broad model of general personality functioning. The present study employed self-report and ecological momentary assessments (EMA) to examine the relations between self-reported Five-Factor Model Neuroticism, EMA average negative affect, and EMA negative affect instability. Results suggest that Neuroticism and negative affect instability are related yet distinct constructs, and that Neuroticism better represents average negative affect across time. Results also suggest that negative affect instability is related to low Agreeableness and specific externalizing facets of Neuroticism, such as Angry Hostility and Impulsiveness. The implications of these findings and potential areas for future research are discussed.     

Ethnophaulisms for ethnic immigrant groups: the contributions of group size and familiarity

An archival analysis was conducted on the ethnophaulisms for ethnic immigrant groups as a function of the size and the familiarity of those groups. Cognitive representation was operationalized as the degree of complexity in, and the valence of, the ethnophaulisms applied to ethnic immigrant groups in the United States during each of 15 consecutive 10‐year time periods. Group size was operationalized as the number of first‐generation persons in these ethnic groups during each of these same 15 10‐year time periods. Familiarity was operationalized in terms of the number of times each ethnic immigrant group was mentioned in social histories and popular songs for each of these same 15 10‐year time periods. Ethnophaulisms for smaller groups tended to be less complex and more negative and ethnophaulisms for less familiar groups tended to be less complex and more negative. Analyses delineate the interrelations between ethnic immigrant group size, ethnic immigrant group familiarity, and the cognitive representations of these groups. The implications of these results for research on intergroup perceptions are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Introduction and application of the multiscale coefficient of variation analysis

Quantifying how patterns of behavior relate across multiple levels of measurement typically requires long time series for reliable parameter estimation. We describe a novel analysis that estimates patterns of variability across multiple scales of analysis suitable for time series of short duration. The multiscale coefficient of variation (MSCV) measures the distance between local coefficient of variation estimates within particular time windows and the overall coefficient of variation across all time samples. We first describe the MSCV analysis and provide an example analytical protocol with corresponding MATLAB implementation and code. Next, we present a simulation study testing the new analysis using time series generated by ARFIMA models that span white noise, short-term and long-term correlations. The MSCV analysis was observed to be sensitive to specific parameters of ARFIMA models varying in the type of temporal structure and time series length. We then apply the MSCV analysis to short time series of speech phrases and musical themes to show commonalities in multiscale structure. The simulation and application studies provide evidence that the MSCV analysis can discriminate between time series varying in multiscale structure and length.     

The empirical status of empirically supported psychotherapies: assumptions, findings, and reporting in controlled clinical trials

This article provides a critical review of the assumptions and findings of studies used to establish psychotherapies as empirically supported. The attempt to identify empirically supported therapies (ESTs) imposes particular assumptions on the use of randomized controlled trial (RCT) methodology that appear to be valid for some disorders and treatments (notably exposure-based treatments of specific anxiety symptoms) but substantially violated for others. Meta-analytic studies support a more nuanced view of treatment efficacy than implied by a dichotomous judgment of supported versus unsupported. The authors recommend changes in reporting practices to maximize the clinical utility of RCTs, describe alternative methodologies that may be useful when the assumptions underlying EST methodology are violated, and suggest a shift from validating treatment packages to testing intervention strategies and theories of change that clinicians can integrate into empirically informed therapies.