A note on Lawley's formulas for standard errors in maximum likelihood factor analysis

Evidence is given to indicate that Lawley's formulas for the standard errors of maximum likelihood loading estimates do not produce exact asymptotic results. A small modification is derived which appears to eliminate this difficulty.The authors are indebted to Walter Kristof and Thomas Stroud for their helpful reviews of an earlier version of this paper and particularly to D. N. Lawley for his review, comments, and encouragement.     

Behavioral techniques in the treatment of obesity: A comparative analysis

The relative efficacy of the major techniques typically used in behavioral treatment programs for weight reduction was investigated using obese adult volunteers. Study 1 compared the effects of self-monitoring, self-control procedures, monetary rewards, aversive imagery and relaxation training. These procedures resulted in significantly greater weight reduction than either a no treatment group or subjects who graphed and recorded daily weight. Self-monitoring of daily caloric intake was as effective as the other methods, both singly and combined, over a 4 week treatment period. Study 2 compared the long-term effects of self-monitoring vs the full complement of behavioral techniques used in Study 1. The full behavior management program was significantly more effective, both during the treatment period and at 3 and 12 week follow-ups, although self-monitoring again produced substantial weight loss.     

Self-concept in educable mentally retarded and emotionally handicapped children

A total of 48 educable mentally retarded (EMR) and emotionally handicapped (EH) children ( \(\overline {CA} \) =137.7 months) were pretested on Coopersmith's Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI), Nowicki-Strickland's Locus of Control Scale for Children (LCSC), and 3 behavioral measures: (1) risk-taking, (2) a chance/skill task, and (3) delay of gratification. One group of 12 children from each population was then exposed to either a self-confident or a control model. After exposure, Ss were given an opportunity to perform successfully on an ambiguous task and answer questions about their success, and were readministered the SEI, LCSC, and 3 behavioral choices. Correlational analyses of pretreatment data revealed significant relationships between defensiveness and LCSC, SEI, and delay of gratification and a near-significant relationship between LCSC and SEI. EMR and EH Ss were both lower on self-esteem than the general population, while EMR Ss were more defensive, more external, and less likely to delay gratification than EH Ss. Both treated groups matched more of the behavioral choices than the control groups, while only treated EH Ss were more likely to attribute their success to internal causes. It was concluded that EMR and EH children differ in self-concept development and that future attempts to modify self-concept should include greater modeling exposure as well as increased opportunity for performance with its resultant feedback.     

A second-order factor analysis of reasoning abilities

This article reports a second-order factor analysis of the 13 interpretable first-order factors of Adkins and Lyerly based on 66 variables for 200 Army men. The approach to simple structure for 6 second-order factors was unusually good. Loadings of the original 66 variables on the second-order factors were also obtained. Five of the factors are tentatively interpreted as Precision in Formation and Use of Verbal Concepts, General Verbal Fluency, Visualizing Spatial Constancy During Movement, Speed in Analysis, and Flexibility in Analysis.     

The relation of primary mental abilities to activity preferences

The relations of abilities, as measured by Thurstone'sTests for Primary Mental Abilities, to activity preferences, as measured by Kuder'sPreference Record, are investigated for a population of 512 university freshmen. Ability profiles for contrasted groups on each preference scale reveal relatively slight overlapping between the two sets of measures, although the apparent trends are reasonable. The Pearson inter-correlation coefficients of all pairs of measures involved were determined. Implications of the findings in relation to theory and to educational and vocational guidance are indicated.     

Control by reinforcers across time and space: A review of recent choice research

Reinforcers affect behavior. A fundamental assumption has been that reinforcers strengthen the behavior they follow, and that this strengthening may be context‐specific (stimulus control). Less frequently discussed, but just as evident, is the observation that reinforcers have discriminative properties that also guide behavior. We review findings from recent research that approaches choice using nontraditional procedures, with a particular focus on how choice is affected by reinforcers, by time since reinforcers, and by recent sequences of reinforcers. We also discuss how conclusions about these results are impacted by the choice of measurement level and display. Clearly, reinforcers as traditionally considered are conditionally phylogenetically important to animals. However, their effects on behavior may be solely discriminative, and contingent reinforcers may not strengthen behavior. Rather, phylogenetically important stimuli constitute a part of a correlated compound stimulus context consisting of stimuli arising from the organism, from behavior, and from physiologically detected environmental stimuli. Thus, the three‐term contingency may be seen, along with organismic state, as a correlation of stimuli. We suggest that organisms may be seen as natural stimulus‐correlation detectors so that behavioral change affects the overall correlation and directs the organism toward currently appetitive goals and away from potential aversive goals. As a general conclusion, both historical and recent choice research supports the idea that stimulus control, not reinforcer control, may be fundamental.     

Revisionist Responses to the Amoralism Objection: A Reply to Julia Markovits

Some subjectivist views of practical reasons entail that some people, in some cases, lack sufficient reasons to act as morality requires of them. This is often thought to form the basis of an objection to these subjectivist views: ‘the amoralism objection’. This objection has been developed at length by Julia Markovits in her recent book Moral Reason. But Markovits—alongside many other proponents of this objection—does not explicitly consider that her objection is premised on a claim that her opponents deny on first-order grounds, often as part of a socially and politically motivated revisionism about the assessment of agents and their actions. As such, the amoralism objection as she presents it misses its dialectical mark. This has interesting consequences for subjectivism—and the methodology behind it—more generally.     

Going against the grain: supporting lesbian, gay and bisexual clients as they 'come out'

It has been acknowledged in principle that those who provide counselling or support should respect differences and the diversity inherent within any society or culture. In this article we focus upon sexual orientation as a resource: a means by which it is possible to expand upon skills and understand the experiences of those who have embarked upon alternative trajectories of sexual development. We consider the process of development from the perspective of the 'everyday' and, based upon interviews with 16 lesbians and gay men, explore the process of identity formation and the role of those professionals and volunteers who provide support during this transitional period in a person's life. We suggest that it is important for those providing counselling or support to an individual who is lesbian, gay or bisexual to understand the role of context and social influence in their personal and interpersonal development. We suggest that working with lesbian, gay and bisexual clients can provide the practitioner with insights and opportunities to further expand their supportive skills through an exploration of what it means to grow up as a member of a minority group.     

Resilient Response to Battering

Spouse abuse remains an important social problem. Recent research has begun to explore resiliency in a variety of areas: Why, despite harsh life circumstances, do some people survive and later thrive after experiencing trauma? What are the processes associated with a successful departure from abuse? The authors worked with a local shelter to identify three groups of women: (a) those currently at the shelter; (b) those who had been away from an abusive relationship for at least one year; and (c) those who were identified by shelter staff as having demonstrated a resilient response to battering, and compared experiences and recommendations between groups and discuss clinical and service implications.