Ethical aspects of research into the etiology of autism

Advances in understanding autism and other developmental neuropsychiatric disorders will come from an integration of various research strategies including phenomenologic, functional neuroimaging, and pharmacologic methods, as well as epidemiologic approaches aimed at identifying genetic and environmental risk factors. The highly heritable nature of autism makes it scientifically valuable to involve parents and siblings as research participants. However, many studies on autism pose ethical challenges because they do not offer the prospect of direct benefit to subjects. In this article, we present an in-depth ethical analysis of current nontherapeutic research strategies that are common in autism research. The ethical analysis applies a proposed ethical framework for evaluating clinical research focusing on seven ethical requirements: (1) social or scientific value, (2) scientific validity, (3) fair subject selection, (4) favorable risk-benefit ratio, (5) independent review, (6) informed consent, and (7) respect for potential and enrolled research participants.     

Crossmodal links between audition and touch in covert endogenous spatial attention

We report three experiments designed to investigate the nature of any crossmodal links between audition and touch in sustained endogenous covert spatial attention, using the orthogonal spatial cuing paradigm. Participants discriminated the elevation (up vs. down) of auditory and tactile targets presented to either the left or the right of fixation. In Experiment 1, targets were expected on a particular side in just one modality; the results demonstrated that the participants could spatially shift their attention independently in both audition and touch. Experiment 2 demonstrated that when the participants were informed that targets were more likely to be on one side for both modalities, elevation judgments were faster on that side in both audition and touch. The participants were also able to "split" their auditory and tactile attention, albeit at some cost, when targets in the two modalities were expected on opposite sides. Similar results were also reported in Experiment 3 when participants adopted a crossed-hands posture, thus revealing that crossmodal links in audiotactile attention operate on a representation of space that is updated following posture change. These results are discussed in relation to previous findings regarding crossmodal links in audiovisual and visuotactile covert spatial attentional orienting.     

Inhibition of return: A graphical meta-analysis of its time course and an empirical test of its temporal and spatial properties

Immediately after a stimulus appears in the visual field, there is often a short period of facilitated processing of stimuli at or near this location. This period is followed by one in which processing is impaired, rather than facilitated. This impairment has been termed inhibition of return (IOR). In the present study, the time course of this phenomenon was examined in two ways. (1) A graphical metaanalysis plotted the size of the effect as a function of the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) of the two stimuli. This analysis showed that IOR is impressively stable for SOAs of 300-1,600 msec. It also showed that the literature does not provide any clear sense of the duration of IOR. (2) An empirical approach was, therefore, taken to fill this gap in our knowledge of IOR. In three experiments, IOR was tested using SOAs between 600 and 4,200 msec. IOR was robust for approximately 3 sec and appeared to taper off after this point; the observed duration varied somewhat as a function of the testing conditions. In addition, for the first second, the degree of inhibition was inversely related to distance of the target from the original stimulus, but for the next 2 sec this spatial distribution was not observed. Theories of the mechanisms and function of IOR must conform to these spatial and temporal properties.     

Modifying the Rorschach Human Experience Variable to create the Human Representational Variable

The Human Experience Variable (HEV; Perry & Viglione, 1991) provided information about interpersonal perceptions not previously available within the Comprehensive System (CS; Exner, 1993). Research data suggests that it was related to interpersonal functioning and as a result, psychological impairment and health. In this article, we present the rationale and empirical basis for recent psychometric refinements to the HEV, consequently renamed the Human Representational Variable (HRV). Research addressing the reliability and validity for the HRV is summarized. Based on data and experience with the HEV, this study summarized some small modifications to the original algorithm. The refined variable, the HRV, has been added to the CS (Exner, 2000). Data presented here suggest that the HRV has improved psychometric properties compared to the HEV and that it is simpler to understand. Research recommendations and interpretive suggestions are also presented.     

Perfectionism in relation to attributions for success or failure

The present study examined the association between dimensions of perfectionism and attributions for success and failure. A sample of 124 students (40 males, 84 females) completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS) and the Multidimensional Multiattributional Causation Scale (MMCS). The MPS consists of three subscales measuring self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially pre-scribed perfectionism. The MMCS measures internal attributions (i.e., ability, effort) and external attributions (i.e., luck, contextual factors) for positive and negative hypo-thetical outcomes in the achievement and affiliation domains. The main finding of this study was that socially prescribed perfectionism was associated with a general ten-dency to attribute outcomes to external causes. This external attribution pattern was obtained for successes and failures in both the achievement and interpersonal spheres. Overall, the main results suggest that socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with perceptions of learned helplessness. The implications of these findings are dis-cussed.     

The Influence of a Multi-theme Park on Cultural Beliefs as a Function of Schema Salience: Promoting and Undermining the Myth of the Old West1

This study assessed the idea that theme park visits can influence cultural beliefs about the past and, further, that such effects depend on the schema of the park most available to the particular visitor. Subjects were randomly assigned to complete a questionnaire either before entering or after exiting Old Tucson, an Old West theme park and movie location. In addition, subjects were given either an “authentic Old West town” cue, a “famous movie location” cue, or no cue. It was expected that the cues would affect Old Tucson's impact on beliefs about the Old West. There was a significant entrance-exit by cue interaction for beliefs in the myth of the Old West. As expected, when no cue was provided, belief in the Old West myth was stronger for exit subjects than for entrance subjects. When the town cue was provided, belief in the myth of the Old West was not affected by the visit. When the movie cue was provided, belief in the Old West myth was weaker for exit subjects than for entrance subjects. For movie cue subjects, the Old Tucson experience seemed to debunk the myth.     

TEAM SPORTS FOR THE SEVERELY RETARDED: TRAINING A SIDE-OF-THE-FOOT SOCCER PASS USING A MAXIMUM-TO-MINIMUM PROMPT REDUCTION STRATEGY

A program to teach three severely retarded adults to use a side-of-the-foot soccer pass was evaluated. A 9-step stimulus-response chain was taught using forward chaining. In contrast to usual practice, intensive physical prompts were provided initially to teach each response component, then systematically faded. Approximately 20 lessons (trials) were presented in 20-min sessions. A multiple baseline across subjects design showed that the three trainees achieved the no-prompt criterion after 24, 29, and 22 sessions, respectively. Subanalyses indicated that successive response components were learned only after training was implemented. Follow-up data were obtained 57 and 276 days later in the training room and in a gymnasium; in both settings, criterion was achieved with fewer than three reinstructions.     

The counseling psychologist in business and industry: Ethical concerns

Ethical concerns of counseling psychologists practicing in business and industry are explored in the context of values conflicts, operational issues, and strategies for resolution. An emphasis is placed on strategies evolving from preparation and self-knowledge.     

Irrational beliefs and bulimia symptoms

The psychological correlates of bulimia include affective disorder and emotional liability. In addition, emotional liability appears to precipitate binge-purge episodes. It has been proposed that emotional liability is a function of irrational beliefs regarding personal performance, interpersonal relationships and self-control. Irrational beliefs and bulimia symptoms were assessed with psychometrically valid self-report measures. Correlational analyses showed that the irrational beliefs of Anxious Overconcern, Problem Avoidance, Helplessness and Blame Proneness are separately correlated with bulimia symptoms. The implications for the psychological assessment and treatment of bulimia symptoms are discussed.Jeffrey M. Lohr, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of Arkansas. His research interests are in the assessment of irrational beliefs and their association with dysphoric motivational states.Donna L. Parkinson, M.A., is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Psychology at the University of Arkansas. Her research interests are in the assessment of eating disorders.