Interactive effects of writing and reading a persuasive essay on attitude change and selective exposure

Subjects wrote an essay either supporting their own position on an issue or irrelevant to that issue. Subsequently, they received a communication that either supported or opposed their position, and that either claimed to present the only reasonable position or acknowledged the viability of alternative positions. Then, they reported their own beliefs in the position being advocated, and finally were given an opportunity to obtain subsequent information that either supported or opposed this position. Attitude change in the direction of a proattitudinal communication occurred only when both (a) this communication asserted that only the position advocated was defensible and (b) subjects had previously written a proattitudinal essay themselves. Moreover, either of these factors was sufficient to prevent attitude change in the direction of a counterattitudinal communication. Data supported predictions based upon a joint consideration of commitment and reactance effects. Subjects' subsequent preference for supporting over opposing information was greater when they had written a supporting essay than when they had not, greater when they had read an opposing communication than when they had read a supporting one, and greater when the communication they read was presented as stating the only reasonable position, no matter which position it advocated.     

Modeling instrumental agression in adults in a laboratory setting

Summary Five experiments with 353 young adults performing a game on an aggression machine are reported, three of them testing hypotheses concerning the effects of a model's aggressiveness and social status on instrumental aggressive behavior, and two investigating aspects of reliability and validity. Model's aggressiveness increased the Ss' aggressive behavior in all experiments. The use of presumptive monetary losses as a means by which SS punish their opponents in aggression machine experiments is as effective as presumed electric shocks, and therefore seems preferable in further experimental studies of aggression.

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Zusammenfassung Es wird über fünf Experimente mit insgesamt 353 jüngeren Erwachsenen als Versuchspersonen berichtet, deren instrumentell-aggressives Verhalten an einem Aggressionssimulator untersucht wird. Drei der Experimente dienten der Prüfung von Hypothesen über den Einfluß von Modell-Aggression und Modell-Status auf instrumentell-aggressives Verhalten, zwei weitere untersuchten Aspekte der Reliabilität und Validität. In allen Experimenten zeigte sich ein Anwachsen aggressiven Verhaltens, wenn das Modell aggressiv war. Ferner ergab sich, daß die Verwendung angeblicher Geldstrafen als Mittel, den Gegenspieler an der Aggressionsmaschine zum Rückzug zu zwingen, in gleichem Maße effizient war wie die Vergabe angeblicher Elektroschocks. Daher wird der Verwendung von Geldstrafen in weiteren Aggressionsexperimenten der Vorzug gegeben.

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Detailed reports in German should be requested from the autor at Universität Bielefeld, Postfach 8640, D-4800 Bielefeld 1 (Bielefelder Arbeiten zur Sozialpsychologie No. 2, 3, 10, 18, 25 for Experiments 1 to 5)

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The author is indebted to the following coworkers: Ulrich Goertz, Günter Maus, Amélie Mummendey, Bernd Schiebel, Friedrich-Wilhelm Schöer, Rüdiger Stallberg, Gabriele Sturm, Uwe Troske     

Selective exposure and information quantity: how different information quantities moderate decision makers' preference for consistent and inconsistent information

Empirical evidence on selective exposure to information after decisions is contradictory: Whereas many studies have found a preference for information that is consistent with one's prior decision, some have found a preference for inconsistent information. The authors propose that different available information quantities moderate these contradictory findings. Four studies confirmed this expectation. When confronted with 10 pieces of information, decision makers systematically preferred decision-consistent information, whereas when confronted with only 2 pieces of information, they strongly preferred decision-inconsistent information (Study 1). This effect was not due to differences in processing complexity (Study 2) or dissonance processes (Study 3) but could be traced back to different salient selection criteria: When confronted with 2 pieces of information, the salient selection criterion was information direction (consistent vs. inconsistent), which caused a preference for inconsistent information. In contrast, when confronted with more than 2 pieces of information, the salient selection criterion was expected information quality, which caused a preference for consistent information (Study 4).     

Self-regulation and selective exposure: the impact of depleted self-regulation resources on confirmatory information processing

In the present research, the authors investigated the impact of self-regulation resources on confirmatory information processing, that is, the tendency of individuals to systematically prefer standpoint-consistent information to standpoint-inconsistent information in information evaluation and search. In 4 studies with political and economic decision-making scenarios, it was consistently found that individuals with depleted self-regulation resources exhibited a stronger tendency for confirmatory information processing than did individuals with nondepleted self-regulation resources. Alternative explanations based on processes of ego threat, cognitive load, and mood were ruled out. Mediational analyses suggested that individuals with depleted self-regulation resources experienced increased levels of commitment to their own standpoint, which resulted in increased confirmatory information processing. In sum, the impact of ego depletion on confirmatory information search seems to be more motivational than cognitive in nature.     

Luther Research and Ecumenism

Abstract : The article discusses the fundamental conceptual problems underlying the ecumenical vocabulary. These problems result from issues present available in academic studies that often aim at emphasizing the great divide between Luther and medieval theology, as well as providing a justification for the specific and distinctive characteristics of Lutheran theology. The author aims at overcoming the problematic confessionalism which results from these conceptual presuppositions.     

Visual search for dimensionally redundant pop-out targets: Evidence for parallel-coactive processing of dimensions

In two visual search experiments, the detection of singleton feature targets redundantly defined on multiple dimensions was investigated. Targets differed from the distractors in orientation, color, or both (redundant targets). In Experiment 1, the various target types were presented either in separate blocks or in random order within blocks. Reaction times to redundant targets significantly violated therace model inequality (Miller, 1982), but only when there was constancy of the target-defining dimension(s) within trial blocks. In Experiment 2, there was dimensional variability within blocks. Consistent with Experiment 1, constancy of the target-defining dimension(s), but this time across successive trials (rather than within blocks), was critical for observing violations of the race model inequality. These results provide evidence for parallel-coactive processing of multiple dimensions, consistent with thedimension-weighting account of Müller, Heller, and Ziegler (1995).     

Biased assimilation: the role of source position

Biased assimilation is the tendency to evaluate belief‐consistent information more positively than belief‐inconsistent information. Previous research has demonstrated that biased assimilation is due to an inconsistency between an argument and the recipient's position toward this argument. The present research revealed that an inconsistency between a source's position (independently of the argument) and the recipient's position is also responsible for biased assimilation. In two studies, participants evaluated arguments stated by a politician. Party affiliation of the politician was correctly labeled, incorrectly labeled, or not labeled. The politicians' arguments were evaluated more favorably by their respective voters when party affiliation was correctly labeled. This biased evaluation diminished when party affiliation was not labeled and even slightly reversed when party affiliation was incorrectly labeled. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Taking the Focus Away from the Self: Low Individualism Mediates the Effect of Oxytocin on Creativity

Recently, it has been shown that the hormone oxytocin can enable creative cognition. The aim of this investigation was to examine the psychological mechanism via which oxytocin influences creativity. Two opposing explanatory approaches suggested by previous research were investigated: It was predicted that the effect of oxytocin on creativity would be determined by low versus high individualism, especially in people with low levels of anxiety. Participants filled out an anxiety questionnaire and intranasally administered oxytocin or a placebo. After a 40-min waiting period, they performed a creativity task and indicated their level of individualism. Participants with low levels of anxiety showed heightened creative potential under oxytocin, and this relationship was mediated by low individualism. The results could not be explained by changes in the participants’ affective state. The findings underscore the moderating role of dispositional factors and reveal an important factor to understand the role of oxytocin in human behavior.     

Keeping up day-specific effects of transformational leadership: the role of followers’ emotion regulation

This diary study examines the role of day-specific transformational leadership for followers’ personal initiative. Building on Affective Events Theory, we proposed a direct effect of day-specific transformational leadership on followers’ personal initiative on the same day. Furthermore, we took a closer look at lagged effects of day-specific transformational leadership. More specifically, we hypothesized that positive effects of one day’s transformational leadership can endure until the next day for followers who apply beneficial emotion regulation strategies. We conducted a diary study over five consecutive working days among 97 employees. Two-level hierarchical linear modelling supported our hypotheses. As expected, day-specific transformational leadership positively predicted followers’ personal initiative on the same day. Furthermore, concerning the association between day-specific transformational leadership and followers’ personal initiative on the following day, there was a positive relation for followers applying beneficial emotion regulation strategies in terms of high cognitive reappraisal and low expressive suppression, respectively.