Personality factors, family structure, and sex of drawn figure on the Draw-A-Person Test

One hundred seventy-four youthful psychiatric inpatients were given the Draw-A-Person Test (DAP) as part of an assessment battery. Sex of person drawn was compared to subject's sex, Achenbach aggression and delinquency scores, and scores on Children's Inventory of Anger and Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale. The sex of the person drawn was also compared to family composition, specifically whether or not the child came from an intact family with both a male and female parent or role model. Results support drawing of a same-sexed individual as normative, regardless of age or sex. Adolescent girls and young boys were the only groups that differed significantly from this norm. Personality measures and family composition were not significantly related to the tendency to draw same versus opposite sex.     

An empirical investigation of the effects of a microcounselling programme with social work students: The acquisition and transfer of component skills

Microcounselling has become widely used with various professional groups as a systematic approach to improving interviewing and counselling skills (Ivey & Authier, 1978). Although reviews of research largely attest to its effectiveness (Hargie & Saunders, 1983; Baker & Daniels, 1989), such conclusions have been based on outcome criteria which, for the most part, have been essentially second-order and proximal (Dickson, 1981). The present study, which utilized a multiple baseline design, was carried out to evaluate the efficacy of a programme of microcounselling, undertaken by social work students, in terms of both the initial acquisition and subsequent transfer of the interpersonal skills of non-verbal communication, questioning, reflecting, listening, explaining, set induction, and closure. While the training intervention was adjudged to have been successful with regard to the initial acquisition of skills, only limited evidence was found of performances generalizing from role-play to ‘real problem’ situations (across tasks) and from familiar to unfamiliar clients (across persons). These results are related to existing research findings. The possibility of distinct and characteristic profiles of skill acquisition is discussed together with factors which may promote transfer effects. Finally, limitations of the study are addressed and recommendations made for further research.     

Stimulus control and the response-reinforcement contingency

Pigeons were trained under a schedule in which reinforcement was made available at varying periods of time after a prior reinforcement. The first key peck after a reinforcer was available began a timer and a second key peck, which exceeded a specified minimal time interval, produced the reinforcer. It was shown that a contingency which contains a minimal interresponse time does not necessarily weaken stimulus control by an exteroceptive stimulus.     

Convergent and concurrent validation of four measures of assertion

This study examined the relationship among the College Self-Expression Scale (CSES), the Dominance Scale of the California Psychological Inventory (Do), role-play assessment, and peer ratings of assertion. Peer ratings served as the criterion measure. Fifty-three members of a college sorority completed the CSES and the Do Scale, role played eight scenes requiring an assertive response, and rated each other on a five-point scale of assertion. Peer ratings were significantly correlated with the Do Scale and the CSES. A significant correlation was also obtained between the CSES and the Do. Role-play ratings were not significantly related to any measure. Results are discussed in terms of convergent and concurrent validity for the Do and CSES as measures of assertion. A precautionary note is presented regarding the use of role-play assessment for measuring assertion and as a behavioral validation procedure.     

MATERNAL EXPECTATIONS FOR MASTERY OF DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS IN JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES*

Maternal expectations about development help organize parental behavior by providing internal referents against which a child's growth and behavior are evaluated, thus identifying occasions for intervention by the adult. Fifty-eight mothers from Japan and 67 mothers from the United States were interviewed about the ages at which they expected their four-year-old children to acquire a number of specific developmental skills. There were no differences between the two groups of mothers in mean age of mastery expectation across all 38 items but Japanese mothers expected early mastery on skills that indicated emotional maturity, self-control, and social courtesy. Mothers in the U.S. expected mastery at an earlier age on items indicating verbal assertiveness and social skills with peers. Maternal expectations were found to correlate with children's performance on tests of school aptitude when the children were six years of age.     

Changes in Behaviour and Body Weight Following a Single or Double Social Defeat in Rats

In a series of experiments, the consequences of a single and double social conflict on various behaviours and body weight in rats were studied. Animals were subjected to social defeat by placing them into the territory of an aggressive male conspecific for one hour, either once, or twice at the same time on two consecutive days. To assess the consequences of social defeat, three experiments were performed with independent groups of rats. In the first experiment, an open field test was performed two days after the last conflict. Locomotor activity was strongly reduced after social defeat. There were no differences between the single and double defeat group. To assess the effects of social defeat on subsequent social behaviour, a second experiment was performed in which experimental animals were confronted with an unfamiliar non-aggressive rat two days after a single or double conflict. Social defeat resulted in a reduction of social contact with the unfamiliar conspecific. There was no difference between the single and double conflict group. In the third experiment, the effects of social conflict on food intake, body weight and saccharine preference were measured. Food intake was not affected after a single conflict, but in the double conflict group food intake was decreased for several days. Body weight gain was decreased after both single and double social defeat. The decrease was stronger in the double conflict group. Water intake and saccharine preference were not significantly affected. This study revealed that social defeat in rats causes pronounced changes in various behaviours and body weight. Different aspects of behaviour are differentially affected by defeat with respect to the magnitude and time course of the changes induced. Moreover, different behavioural parameters are differentially sensitive to repetition of the stressor.     

Posture and gaze in early mother–infant communication: synchronization of developmental trajectories

Weekly laboratory observations of free play for 13 middle-income mother–infant dyads, from 1 to 6 months of age, were used to study the synchronization of developmental trajectories between infant postural position and gaze direction. Mothers sat in a straight-backed chair while holding infants on their laps and were free to adjust the infant’s posture. Postural position was coded as upright (supported sitting or standing on the mother’s lap) or other (lying, cradling, or being held close to mother). Gaze was coded as either at mother’s face or away. The age of onset of visually guided reaching was also assessed. Results show that there were longer durations of gazing away when the infant was in an upright position. Over the 5 month period of observation, the dyads began with a pattern of non-upright positions accompanied by gaze at mother. Contrary to previous predictions, the developmental shift in the first 6 months from exclusive gazing at mother’s face to gazing away from mother was not synchronized with the development of reaching, but rather with changes in the infant’s posture to more upright positions. The possible role of postural position in fostering positive emotional communication is discussed.     

The Tablighi Jama‘at in Southwestern Ontario: making Muslim identities and networks in Canadian urban spaces

This ethnographic paper builds on previous research on the Tablighi Jama‘at by delving deeper into the ways in which the movement creates identity and community among Muslims living in modern/post-modern urban spaces. The paper is grounded in the theoretical framework provided by Robert Orsi in his introduction to Gods of the City (1999). In his lengthy introduction, Orsi describes contemporary urban cultural theory. This theory posits metropolitan regions as comprising “complex networks of “pathways” that city people travel in” (51). Along these “pathways” city dwellers create networks of association that in turn become ways of life and communities. Orsi notes that, “urban religious idioms have responded to the spatial dilemmas created by the circumstances of diaspora and dislocation” (51). These urban religious idioms often involve intra-communal outreach that seeks to inculcate community members with a cognitive “map” of the surrounding urban spaces, marking off both desirable and forbidden places. I argue that this is precisely what the Tablighi Jama‘at seeks to engender in urban spaces such as Southwestern Ontario, and this study is undertaken to better understand this process of identity construction and community creation.