Observing behavior during interval schedules

Experiment 1 showed that the three stimuli associated with three chained fixed-interval links could be used to maintain observing behavior. Experiment 2 showed that three stimuli correlated with the passage of time since the last reinforcement in a fixed-interval schedule could be used to maintain observing behavior. In both experiments most observing responses occurred midway between reinforcements. Few occurred just before or just after reinforcement. Experiment 3 showed that the decline in the rate of observing behavior just before reinforcement was reduced when more stimuli could be observed. The relatively high terminal rate of observing behavior that resulted was maintained even when at least 4 sec intervened between the reinforcement and the last observed stimulus.     

Some effects of methylphenidate on stimulus control of ratio avoidance behavior in the rat

After exposure to an avoidance schedule which included a warning signal, a rat was placed on a multiple schedule in which the first component was the same as before, i.e., a single response reset the response-shock interval, delaying shock, and the second component differed only in that four bar-presses were required to postpone shock. A fixed ratio requirement of four responses (FR 4) generated behavior resembling a fixed ratio requirement of one response (FR 1) since responding was controlled by the warning signal but more shocks were received. At a dosage of 2 mg/kg, methylphenidate given intraperitoneally decreased shock frequency during FR 4 periods while FR 1 behavior was not affected; at 4 mg/kg, stimulus control of avoidance responding was impaired during both components. Results at 4 mg/kg were partially confirmed by two animals exposed to an FR 4 avoidance schedule which included a warning signal but with different parameters. Response distributions showed that methylphenidate increased response rates in the absence of the warning signal, i.e., stimulus control of ratio-avoidance behavior was impaired although the increased response rates reduced shock frequency. One hour later responses again occurred more frequently during the signal than in its absence but shocks were less frequent than during control (non-drug) periods.     

Effects of response pacing on conditioned suppression

In this experiment, which employed a balanced design with two rat subjects, the frequency of reinforcement remained constant while the rate of operant responding was varied by means of a response pacing technique. At each of three response rates, 1-min. periods of noise were presented, and, as these periods ended, a slight unavoidable shock was delivered to the rat. This procedure resulted in suppression of the operant responding during the periods of noise. This behavioural change was measured by a suppression ratio, essentially a comparison of the response rates in the presence and absence of the noise. The suppression ratios varied in a systematic way during the experiment, denoting most conditioned suppression when the baseline rate of responding was high, and least suppression when this was low. It is therefore concluded that response rate in one factor determining the degree of conditioned suppression in this controlled experiment. The conclusion is corroborated by absolute measures of responding during the pre-shock periods of noise.     

Conversation and remembering: Bartlett revisited

Bartlett's book Remembering (1932) is frequently cited as a major forerunner of the information processing approach to memory and cognition. This approach has itself been criticized by one of its founders, Ulric Neisser (1982), for its narrowness and artificiality compared with the nature of remembering in natural contexts. A re-examination of Bartlett's work demonstrates that it offers little basis for an information processing approach, but rather that it offers the foundation of a much broader, culturally contextualized and functional approach to the study of everyday remembering. Three particular themes are discussed: the integration of social judgements and affective reactions with cognition, the role of conventional symbols in the coding and communication of experience, and the importance of conversational discourse. Bartlett's best-known studies, involving the method of serial reproduction, are shown to be microcosmic demonstrations of the process that he was most concerned with—that of conventionalization of symbols rather than of the workings of an individual's memory. It is argued, again beginning with Bartlett, that everyday remembering may be most fruitfully studied in terms of its personal and social functions, and particularly through its realization in discourse.     

The behavioral control of high blood pressure

Stress management and relaxation training lower the blood pressure of many mild hypertensives substantially through mechanisms that are as yet unclear but may include behavioral and cognitive change. It is almost certain that the reduction of weight in the obese, drinking in heavy drinkers, and increased exercise in the sedentary also reduces pressure usefully in hypertensives, and opportunites exist for the application of behavioral principles to improve the effectiveness of programs to alter these behavioral risk factors. It is fortunate that behavioral methods for the control of hypertension exist and are making progress since there are increasing doubts about the effectiveness of pharmacological solutions for mild hypertension. Notice to Readers: This is the second in a three-part series on Health Psychology. Part I appeared in the Spring ’87 issue (vol. 6, no. 1); copies may be purchased ($15 individuals, $20 institutions) by sending a check, moneyorder, or charge card number (MasterCard, Visa, American Express; include expiration date and signature) to: Current Psychological Research & Reviews, Transaction Periodicals Consortium, Dept. 4010, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08903. The author was supported by the Medical Research Council during the writing of this paper.     

Emotion control and analgesia in labour

The role of personality in analgesic use during labour was investigated. When age, duration of labour and number of previous labours were controlled, significant relationships were uncovered between analgesic use and two personality variables: Hypochondriasis and Rehearsal. The results are discussed in relation to stimulus intensity control and emotion control models of pain tolerance.     

I—Derek Matravers

ABSTRACT Jerrold Levinson maintains that he is a realist about aesthetic properties. This paper considers his positive arguments for such a view. An argument from Roger Scruton, that aesthetic realism would entail the absurd claim that many aesthetic predicates were ambiguous, is also considered and it is argued that Levinson is in no worse position with respect to this argument than anyone else. However, Levinson cannot account for the phenomenon of aesthetic autonomy: namely, that we cannot be put in a position to make an aesthetic judgement by testimony alone. Finally, Levinson's views on the ontology of aesthetic properties are considered and found wanting.