Learning disabilities, distinctive encoding, and hemispheric resources

The purpose of this study was to isolate possible sources of learning ability differences in distinctive encoding of item-specific and relational information. Two mechanisms postulated as underlying ability group differences were attentional capacity (as inferred from the magnitude and direction of correlations between primary and secondary recall) and resource monitoring strategies (as reflected in measures of selective attention and laterality). In Experiment 1, learning disabled and nondisabled childrens' word recall was compared on dichotic listening recall tasks that included nonorienting instructions, and orienting instructions that directed children's attention toward semantic, phonemic, or structural word features. Disabled children showed lower recall and more diffuse selective attention to word features than nondisabled children. Reciprocity (negative correlations) between targeted and background words within and between ability groups was comparable, except when targeted word features were phonemically organized. Experiment 2 indicated that disabled childrens' cued recall was inferior to that of nondisabled children, even though both ability groups produced comparable symmetrical recall patterns related to ear presentations. Taken together, the results suggest that the locus of disabled childrens' distinctive encoding deficiencies is related to resource monitoring strategies during interhemispheric processing.     

Echoic memory in the rat: effects of inspection time, retention interval, and the spectral composition of masking noise.

Memory for tones (1100 vs. 2330 Hz) was studied in 4 rats (Rattus norvegicus), as affected by the durations of both target tones (30 to 620 ms) and noise-filled retention intervals (0 to 480 ms). With a 0-ms delay, performance was near asymptotic with the 30-ms tone, but the memory of this brief tone suffered a massive decrement at retention intervals as brief as 60 ms; in contrast, memory for the 340-ms tone was stable for at least 240 ms. If the retention interval was filled by band-stop noise (with targets presented in the spectral gap), then the rat's memory for brief tones was superior to that obtained with the standard broad-band noise filler, and band-stop noise was better than a band-pass noise that had the tones embedded in the region of its spectral energy. These findings are consistent with the hypotheses that auditory memory in the rat consists of a transient sensorylike echoic store and a short-term store more resistant to the effects of retroactive interference.     

Repetition blindness depends on perceptual capture and token individuation failure

A visual prime succeeded by a brief target produces a paradox. Namely, target repetition yields poorer identification accuracy and shorter duration judgments than unrelated prime-target pairs. Experiment 1 manipulated stimulus onset asynchrony to learn when repetition blindness is maximized. Experiments 2 and 3 manipulated expectancy of repetitions through changes in the proportion of repeated trials and instructions, respectively. Results indicate that repetition blindness is influenced by subject strategies and that the change is not mediated by response bias. Experiment 4 showed that increasing the spatial distance between prime and target reduced but did not eliminate repetition blindness. The current data support joint explanation of repetition blindness in terms of perceptual capture (prime-target fusion) and token individuation failure (problems in encoding episodic reoccurrences of an event).     

Fluid noncompliance and symptomatology in end-stage renal disease: cognitive and emotional variables

Fluid noncompliance in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) is a widespread problem with severe consequences for health. In addition, ESRD patients report considerable stress in relation to their illness and dialysis treatment. The present study examined the role of cognitive and emotional variables in fluid noncompliance, symptomatology, and stress. Fifty hemodialysis patients were assessed (a) on the cognitive variables of locus of control, self-evaluations of their past compliance, and self-efficacy to resist fluid intake and (b) on the emotional variables of depression, anger, and anxiety. Results showed that cognitive variables accounted for fluid noncompliance and predicted future adherence. Patients high in negative emotions complied equally as well as patients low in negative emotions but were found to report substantially more symptomatology and distress associated with their treatment. The implications of these findings for treatment of ESRD patients and future research are discussed.     

Visual detectability gradients: effect of high-speed visual experience.

The detectability of a target pattern presented briefly with a number of similar nontarget patterns varies as a function of the spatial location of the target. Previous work attributes these detectability gradients to a visual search process--a non-eye movement serial scan--that examines a decaying neural representation of the image. (Heron, 1957; Efron, Yund, & Nichols, 1987, 1990a,b,c; Yund, Efron, & Nichols, 1990a,b,c). The results reported in the companion paper (Ostrosky-Solis, Efron, & Yund, 1991) indicated that literacy did not affect overall performance levels but did influence scanning behavior: "...reading, or learning to read, caused the scanning mechanisms of literate subjects to adopt more consistent scan paths, from subject to subject, than they would have adopted without this reading experience." The purpose of the present experiment was to determine the effect on this scanning mechanism, if any, of an entirely different type of visual experience--the high-speed visual processing required of tennis players. Unlike reading which requires the linguistic interpretation of a highly structured visual input, tennis skill requires rapid target detection and tracking in three-dimensional visual space as well as large scale visual-motor coordination. As in the previous experiments, subjects were required to detect a vertical stripe pattern among a number of similar non-target patterns. The experiment was performed on a group of 52 tennis players and on an age- and sex-matched group of 52 non-tennis players. The overall accuracy of target detection was greater among the tennis players than among the non-tennis players and, of more interest, there was a significant difference in the detectability gradients. The detection advantage of the tennis group seemed to reach its maximum in the first half of the scan and then to deteriorate as the scan proceeded. These results indicate that visual experience other than reading can affect the habitual activity of the scanning mechanism.     

Long-term smoking intervention at the worksite: effects of quit-smoking groups and an "enriched milieu" on smoking cessation in adult white-collar employees

Maximizing the potential of worksites for smoking intervention remains elusive. We hypothesized that long-term effectiveness of group intervention would be enhanced when offered within an "enriched milieu" (full program) compared with relative isolation (group only). The data failed to support the hypothesis. Although sustained abstinence rates were higher at full-program sites (50%) than at group-only sites (44%), the difference did not achieve statistical significance. Initial (35% vs. 47%) and 12-month (18% vs. 22%) quit rates at full-program and group-only sites also failed to demonstrate the "benefit" of the "enriched milieu."     

Self-management of diabetes mellitus: a critical review

Diabetes has no known cure and is a leading source of morbidity and mortality. Clinical management involves patients managing a complex and variable regimen. This article reviews the determinants of effective self-management and the methods of promoting better self-management. Trait variables (e.g., personality and demographics) have been presumed to affect self-management, but evidence suggests they have little impact. The important determinants of self-management are transient situational factors such as psychological stress and social pressure to eat. Interventions to promote better self-management have reported initial improvements in blood glucose control, but the long-term effects are unclear. We conclude that self-management has been inadequately assessed and that attempts to improve self-management have relied excessively on providing information. More research is needed to clarify determinants of self-management, and interventions to improve self-management will need to change these determinants.     

The role of cosmetics in attributions about sexual harassment

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of cosmetics use on attributions concerning the likelihood of provoking sexual harassment and of being sexually harassed. Subjects were 85 female and 76 male undergraduate volunteers. The study was a 3×2 between-subjects design with three levels of cosmetics use (heavy, moderate, no cosmetics) and two levels of sex of subject (male, female). Each subject viewed one of three colored photographs of a model wearing either heavy, moderate, or no cosmetics, and then indicated how likely the model was to provoke sexual harassment and to be sexually harassed. Data were analyzed using analyses of variance and the Newman-Keuls test. When the model wore heavy cosmetics, she was rated as more likely to provoke sexual harassment than when she wore moderate cosmetics. Similarly, when the model wore moderate cosmetics, she was rated as significantly more likely to provoke sexual harassment than when she was not wearing cosmetics. When the model wore either heavy or moderate cosmetics, she was also rated as more likely to be sexually harassed than when she did not wear cosmetics. In addition, male subjects rated the model as more likely to provoke and to be sexually harassed than did female subjects. Results are discussed in terms of sex role spillover.     

Washing, drying, and anointing in adult humans (Homo sapiens): commonalities with grooming sequences in rodents.

Very few behavioral patterns generalize across human and nonhuman species. We describe washing, drying, and anointing sequences in humans (Homo sapiens) that may have analogies with other species. The rank ordering of washing, drying, and anointing body parts was obtained over 3 successive days for 37 men and 60 women. Variation in rank ordering of body parts was nonrandom, and a cephalocaudal progression was evident for each behavior. Reliability of the behaviors as well as the correlations across rankings were highly significant, which indicates a generalized cephalocaudal progression for all 3 behaviors. Women's anointing was most variable, which suggests a more specific function. The cephalocaudal action pattern described for humans is similar to that for Mongolian gerbils and laboratory rats. Cross-species functions, such as these, may add to our understanding of common developmental and learning processes.