Consistency and error in motor performance

Two response measures that described the consistency and accuracy of motor performance were investigated. A pursuit tracking task was used as the vehicle whereby changes in perceptual motor performance could be monitored over several learning trials. The intra-individual variability of a subject's tracking response was compared to the root mean squared error that was accumulated during each block of trials. Whereas both response measures were sensitive to the changes in performance that occured as a result of practice, neither could be considered sufficiently informative as to be used as a sole indicator of skill acquisition. It appears that both consistency and error measures are needed to describe the subjects' performance as they acquire a perceptual motor skill.     

Expectancy of success on sex-linked tasks

College subjects undertook nine cognitive tasks with different perceived sex linkages, stating their expectancy of success prior to each task and attributing causality for their perceived performance following each task. As hypothesized, two components were present in the overall sex difference in expectancy of success, even when differences in actual task performance were statistically controlled. One component was attributable to a general tendency of females to state lower expectancies; the other was a function of the accord between the perceived sex linkage of the task and the subject's sex. The attribution data suggest that females tend to be more external for success and more internal for failure than males.The research reported here was partially supported by Grant #10692 from the Research Foundation of the City University of New York. The assistance of Bruce Eisman in testing subjects and of Rudy Lorber in data analysis is gratefully acknowledged.     

Cognitions, affect, and behavior following uncontrollable outcomes: A response to current human helplessness research

A series of articles in the Journal of Personality challenge several central assumptions of the reformulated learned helplessness model: that perceptions of uncontrollability, awareness of noncontingency between responses and outcomes, and attributions made about the outcome are necessary to explain learned helplessness effects. The present article addresses the validity of this challenge through a consideration of the methodology employed in these and other traditional studies of human helplessness conducted in the laboratory. We maintain that although performance deficits can be demonstrated reliably following exposure to uncontrollable outcomes, a number of factors other than expectations of future uncontrollability (i.e., learned helplessness) may be responsible for these effects. In addition, demands of the experimental situation may prevent subjects from admitting their true underlying thoughts and feelings regarding the manipulations employed. Finally, the current use of artificial laboratory paradigms may unnecessarily restrict the study of a complex psychological phenomenon such as learned helplessness. We suggest that future researchers employ paradigms that more closely parallel real world situations to which they hope to generalize, or utilize naturally occurring uncontrollable life events to study the problem. In addition, we argue that future research should broaden its focus beyond attributions to explore other mediators of human helplessness.     

Crowding and stress: 2. A personal space approach

The concept of ‘personal space’ has sometimes been invoked in attempts to explain stressful effects of crowding; but the literature on personal space reveals divergent findings according to the definitions and methods of measurement used. Redefinitions are proposed whereby personal space preferences can be seen as mediating our reactions to the spatial proximity of others, according to a dynamic model which considers both task-related needs for physical space and privacy needs, together with concern over social norms and attributions. It is argued that perceived illegitimate invasion of the personal space one claims is likely to give rise to stress effects if coping responses fail. Thus crowding is likely to be stressful in many natural contexts where personal space is intruded upon frequently, especially when attributions of intentional thwarting are made. Further theoretical advances in this area must rest upon more precise specification of processes by which social relationships, situational variables, and subjective motivational, perceptual, and evaluative factors jointly determine an agent’s personal space claims and associated reactions to spatial invasion.     

USE OF A SELF-RECORDING AND SUPERVISION PROGRAM TO CHANGE INSTITUTIONAL STAFF BEHAVIOR

The use of a self-recording and supervision program to increase interactions between direct care staff and profoundly retarded persons in a state residential facility was investigated. Following baseline, staff were provided with instructions regarding what to self-record, criteria for how many interactions to record, and a prepared card on which to make the recordings. Throughout the study, the staff supervisor monitored intermittently staff-client interactions. Observations indicated that when the staff recorded their interactions with clients in a loosely structured dayroom setting, the rate of interactions increased noticeably for each staff person. Behavioral ecology measures indicated that other staff responsibilities, such as maintaining the cleanliness of residents and the physical area, were not affected detrimentally when social interactions increased and actually showed small improvements. Additionally, small decreases in resident self-stimulatory and disruptive/aggressive behaviors occurred when the rate of social interactions from staff persons increased. Follow-up measures indicated that the rate of staff self-recording was variable, but when staff did self-record, the increased rate of staff-client interactions maintained.     

Chunking in recall of symbolic drawings

Three experiments explored memory for symbolic circuit drawings using skilled electronics technicians and novice subjects. In the first experiment a skilled technician reconstructed circuit diagrams from memory. Recall showed marked “chunking”, or grouping, by functional units similar to Chess Masters’ recall of chess positions. In the second experiment skilled technicians were able to recall more than were novice subjects following a brief exposure of the drawings. This advantage did not hold for randomly arranged symbols. In the third experiment the size of chunks retrieved systematically increased with additional study time. Supplementary analyses suggested that the chunking by skilled subjects was not an artifact of spatial proximity and chunk statistics, and that severe constraints are placed on any explanation of the data based on guessing. It is proposed that skilled subjects identify the conceptual category for an entire drawing, and retrieve elements using a generate-and-test process.     

Children at risk for delinquency: A follow-up comparison of aggressive children and children who steal

This study compared the follow-up incidence of court-recorded nonstatus offenses for three groups of adolescent children. These children had been seen 2 to 9 years earlier for problems with aggression in the home (N = 21), for stealing problems (N = 25), or for normative comparisons (N = 14). The results showed that 77% of the children with stealing problems had court-recorded offenses. This was significantly higher than the aggressive children, whose rate did not differ from the normative sample. These findings suggested that young aggressive children were not at risk for adolescent court contact. Instead, it was the young child with identified stealing problems who was highly likely to become an official delinquent. It also appeared that parental reports of stealing events constituted a predictive measure of later criminal acts.