Increasing emotional competence improves psychological and physical well-being, social relationships, and employability

This study builds on earlier work showing that adult emotional competencies (EC) could be improved through a relatively brief training. In a set of 2 controlled experimental studies, the authors investigated whether developing EC could lead to improved emotional functioning; long-term personality changes; and important positive implications for physical, psychological, social, and work adjustment. Results of Study 1 showed that 18 hr of training with e-mail follow-up was sufficient to significantly improve emotion regulation, emotion understanding, and overall EC. These changes led in turn to long-term significant increases in extraversion and agreeableness as well as a decrease in neuroticism. Results of Study 2 showed that the development of EC brought about positive changes in psychological well-being, subjective health, quality of social relationships, and employability. The effect sizes were sufficiently large for the changes to be considered as meaningful in people's lives.     

Short-term memory for auditory and visual durations: evidence for selective interference effects

The present study sought to determine the format in which visual, auditory and auditory-visual durations ranging from 400 to 600 ms are encoded and maintained in short-term memory, using suppression conditions. Participants compared two stimulus durations separated by an interval of 8 s. During this time, they performed either an articulatory suppression task, a visuospatial tracking task or no specific task at all (control condition). The results showed that the articulatory suppression task decreased recognition performance for auditory durations but not for visual or bimodal ones, whereas the visuospatial task decreased recognition performance for visual durations but not for auditory or bimodal ones. These findings support the modality-specific account of short-term memory for durations.     

Associative learning in baboons (Papio papio) and humans (Homo sapiens): species differences in learned attention to visual features

We examined attention shifting in baboons and humans during the learning of visual categories. Within a conditional matching-to-sample task, participants of the two species sequentially learned two two-feature categories which shared a common feature. Results showed that humans encoded both features of the initially learned category, but predominantly only the distinctive feature of the subsequently learned category. Although baboons initially encoded both features of the first category, they ultimately retained only the distinctive features of each category. Empirical data from the two species were analyzed with the 1996 ADIT connectionist model of Kruschke. ADIT fits the baboon data when the attentional shift rate is zero, and the human data when the attentional shift rate is not zero. These empirical and modeling results suggest species differences in learned attention to visual features. Received: 30 May 1998 / Accepted after revision: 13 September 1998     

Attention to low- and high-spatial frequencies in categorizing facial identities, emotions and gender in children with autism

This study was aimed at investigating face categorization strategies in children with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD). Performance of 17 children with ASD was compared to that of 17 control children in a face-matching task, including hybrid faces (composed of two overlapping faces of different spatial bandwidths) and either low- or high-pass filtered faces. Participants were asked to match faces on the basis of identity, emotion or gender. Results revealed that children with ASD used the same strategies as controls when matching faces by gender. By contrast, in the identity and the emotion conditions, children with ASD showed a high-pass bias (i.e., preference for local information), contrary to controls. Consistent with previous studies on autism, these findings suggest that children with ASD do use atypical (local-oriented) strategies to process faces.     

Using item response theory to study the convergent and discriminant validity of three questionnaires measuring cigarette dependence

To determine whether the Cigarette Dependence Scale, the Fagerstr?m Test for Nicotine Dependence, and the Nicotine Dependence Syndrome Scale (NDSS) reliably and correctly assessed both weakly and severely dependent individuals, the authors collected data via Internet from 2,435 current smokers, from 2004 to 2007. They used a 2-parameter item response model to determine the difficulty and discrimination of each question and used correlations between latent scores to assess convergent and discriminant validity. The reliability of all scales was close to or exceeded .70. Both the Cigarette Dependence Scale and the Fagerstr?m Test for Nicotine Dependence had 1 misfitting item. Each NDSS scale had at least 2 misfitting items. The information curve of each of the questionnaires peaked between -2 and 2 and was low at both extremes. All questionnaires had adequate reliability and were more informative for a medium level of the underlying cigarette dependence continuum than for both extremes of this continuum. The correlations between latent scores indicated good convergent validity between questionnaires and low discriminant validity between NDSS subscales, except for Tolerance. This result suggests that nicotine dependence may not be composed of 5 dimensions but may be unidimensional and distinct from reduced sensitivity to the effects of smoking (Tolerance).     

Mixture distribution latent state-trait analysis: basic ideas and applications

Extensions of latent state-trait models for continuous observed variables to mixture latent state-trait models with and without covariates of change are presented that can separate individuals differing in their occasion-specific variability. An empirical application to the repeated measurement of mood states (N=501) revealed that a model with 2 latent classes fits the data well. The larger class (76%) consists of individuals whose mood is highly variable, whose general well-being is comparatively lower, and whose mood variability is influenced by daily hassles and uplifts. The smaller class (24%) represents individuals who are rather stable and happier and whose mood is influenced only by daily uplifts but not by daily hassles. A simulation study on the model without covariates with 5 sets of sample sizes and 5 sets of number of occasions revealed that the appropriateness of the parameter estimates of this model depends on number of observations (the higher the better) and number of occasions (the higher the better). Another simulation study estimated Type I and II errors of the Lo-Mendell-Rubin test.     

Expression of the emotions in the drawing of a man by the child from 5 to 11 years of age]

This study examines the development of children's ability to express emotions in their human figure drawing. Sixty children of 5, 8, and 11 years were asked to draw "a man," and then a "sad", "happy," "angry" and "surprised" man. Expressivity of the drawings was assessed by means of two procedures: a limited choice and a free labelling procedure. Emotionally expressive drawings were then evaluated in terms of the number and the type of graphic cues that were used to express emotion. It was found that children are able to depict happiness and sadness at 8, anger and surprise at 11. With age, children use increasingly numerous and complex graphic cues for each emotion (i.e., facial expression, body position, and contextual cues). Graphic cues for facial expression (e.g., concave mouth, curved eyebrows, wide opened eyes) share strong similarities with specific "action units" described by Ekman and Friesen (1978) in their Facial Action Coding System. Children's ability to depict emotion in their human figure drawing is discussed in relation to perceptual, conceptual, and graphic abilities.     

Social comparison, self-stereotyping, and gender differences in self-construals

Four studies examined gender differences in self-construals and the role of social comparison in generating these differences. Consistent with previous research, Study 1 (N=461) showed that women define themselves as higher in relational interdependence than men, and men define themselves as higher in independence/agency than women. Study 2 (N=301) showed that within-gender social comparison decreases gender differences in self-construals relative to a control condition, whereas between-genders comparison increases gender differences on both relational interdependence and independence/agency. Studies 3 (N=169) and 4 (N=278) confirmed these findings and showed that changing self-construal changes gender differences in social dominance orientation. Across the 4 studies, strong evidence for the role of in-group stereotyping as mediator of the effect of gender on self-construal was observed on the relational dimension but not on the agentic dimension.     

Impact of comparisons with out‐group members on women's self‐esteem: Role of the stereotypical connotation of the performance context

Although upward comparisons may threaten people's self‐esteem, research has argued that this is not the case if the comparison other is an out‐group member. To protect their self‐esteem individuals would dismiss upward comparison information involving out‐group members as not being self‐relevant. We suggest that use of this self‐protective strategy is dependent on the stereotypical connotation of the performance context. Women's self‐esteem would suffer from upward out‐group comparisons on a male‐labelled task but not on a female one because the assumed expertise of women in the latter domain would allow them to reject the comparison information. To test this hypothesis, female participants were led to believe that they were Z‐types group members in comparison with X‐types group members. After doing a test presumably designed to assess either their verbal‐spatial ability (male‐labelled task) or their sociorelational expressiveness (female‐labelled task), they were exposed to bogus information on the performance of three other individuals who were always described as X‐types group members (out‐group members). These out‐group members had performed either better (upward comparison) or worse (downward comparison) than the participants themselves. Supporting the hypothesis, women who had been confronted with the superior performance of out‐group members on the male‐labelled task reported lower self‐esteem than those confronted with the superior performance of out‐group members on the female‐labelled task. When women perform a stereotypically female task, upward comparisons with out‐group members do not decrease their self‐esteem, suggesting that women are in a position to protect their self‐esteem by dismissing the self‐relevance of such comparisons. The assumed expertise of women as a function of the stereotypical gender connotation of the performance context could explain such results. The influence of the social division of gender roles on women's social identity is discussed. La littérature suggère que les comparaisons ascendantes menacent L'estime de soi des individus, sauf lorsque ces comparaisons se déroulent avec des membres d'un exogroupe. En effet, les individus se protègeraient de telles comparaisons en ne les estimant pas pertinentes. Toutefois, nous suggérons que L'utilisation d'une telle stratégie d'auto‐protection dépend de la connotation stéréotypique du contexte de performance. Ainsi, L'estime de soi des femmes serait affaiblie par des comparaisons ascendantes avec des membres d'un exogroupe uniquement si ces dernières portent sur un domaine stéréotypiquement perçu comme masculin et non sur un domaine stéréotypiquement perçu comme féminin. Pour tester cette hypothèse, des participantes sont conduites à croire qu'en tant que membres du groupe des types‐Z elles vont être comparées aux membres du groupe des types‐X. Après avoir réalisé un test supposé évaluer soit leur capacité spatio‐verbale (tâche à connotation masculine) soit leur expressivité socio‐relationnelle (tâche à connotation féminine), elles reçoivent de L'information fictive sur la performance de trois autres individus, toujours présentés comme des membres du groupe des types‐X (exogroupe). Ces trois personnes ont soit mieux réussi (comparaisons ascendantes) soit moins bien réussi (comparaisons descendantes) que les participantes. Conformément à L'hypothèse, les femmes confrontées à de meilleures performances des membres de L'exogroupe présentent une estime de soi plus faible uniquement lorsqu'elles ont réalisé une tâche à connotation masculine. Quand les femmes réalisent une tâche stéréotypiquement féminine, les comparaisons ascendantes avec des membres de L'exogroupe ne diminuent pas leur estime de soi, ce qui suggère que les femmes sont alors capables de protéger leur estime de soi en rejetant ces comparaisons comme non‐pertinentes. L'expertise supposée des femmes en fonction de la connotation sexuelle stéréotypique du contexte de performance pourrait expliquer de tels résultats. La discussion porte ainsi sur L'influence de la division sociale des rôles de genre sur L'identité sociale des femmes. La literatura de investigación sugiere que las comparaciones ascendentes amenazan la auto estima de las personas, a menos que con quien se comparen no sea miembro de su mismo grupo. Para proteger su auto estima, los individuos rechazarían las comparaciones ascendentes con personas ajenas a su grupo por considerarlas irrelevantes para sí mismos. Se sugiere que el uso de esta estrategia de auto protección depende de la connotación estereotipada del contexto en el que se desempeñe la persona. La auto estima de las mujeres sufrirá sólo si se comparan ascendentemente contra alguien, perteneciente a un grupo ajeno al propio, que se desempeñe en un dominio percibido como masculino, pero no en dominios percibidos como femeninos. Para someter a prueba esta hipótesis, se hizo creer a las participantes que eran miembros de un grupo tipo Z que se comparaba con los miembros de un grupo tipo X. Una vez que se habían sometido a una prueba presuntamente diseñada para evaluar, ya fuera la habilidad verbal‐espacial (tarea percibida como masculina) o su expresividad en las relaciones sociales (tarea percibida como femenina), se expusieron a información falsa acerca del rendimiento de otros tres individuos a quienes se describía como miembros del grupo tipo X (grupo ajeno al propio). Estos miembros externos al grupo de la participante habían tenido un rendimiento, ya fuera mejor (comparación ascendente) o peor (comparación descendente) que ésta. La hipótesis recibió apoyo, las mujeres confrontadas con un rendimiento superior de miembros ajenos a su grupo en la tarea percibida como masculina manifestaron menor auto estima que aquéllas confrontadas con un rendimiento superior de miembros ajenos a su grupo en la tarea percibida como femenina. Cuando las mujeres desempeñan una tarea percibida como femenina, las comparaciones ascendentes con miembros de grupos ajenos no disminuyen su auto estima, lo que sugiere que se protegen al rechazar la importancia de tales comparaciones. La supuesta pericia de las mujeres en función de la connotación sexual estereotipada del contexto en el que se desempeñan podría explicar tales resultados. Se discute la influencia de la división social de los roles de género sobre la identidad social de las mujeres.