Stressing the Flesh: In Defense of Strong Embodied Cognition

In a recent paper, Andy Clark (2008) has argued that the literature on embodied cognition reveals a tension between two prominent strands within this movement. On the one hand, there are those who endorse what Clark refers to as body‐centrism, a view which emphasizes the special contribution made by the body to a creature’s mental life. Among other things, body centrism implies that significant differences in embodiment translate into significant differences in cognition and consciousness. On the other hand, there are those who endorse what Clark calls extended functionalism, a view which sees the mind as the joint product of the computational resources presented by (i) intracranial processing, (ii) bodily input, and (iii) environmental scaffolding. As such, extended functionalism allows for the possibility that any contribution of the body to cognition and consciousness can be compensated for by the other two contributing factors. While Clark’s sympathies lie with the latter approach, we argue in favour of the former. In particular, we focus on consciousness and argue that the unique contribution the body makes to a creature’s manifold of phenomenal experience cannot be compensated for, in the manner, and on the scale, that Clark envisages.     

Oh, honey, I already forgot that: strategic control of directed forgetting in older and younger adults

Two experiments investigated list-method directed forgetting with older and younger adults. Using standard directed forgetting instructions, significant forgetting was obtained with younger but not older adults. However, in Experiment 1 older adults showed forgetting with an experimenter-provided strategy that induced a mental context change--specifically, engaging in diversionary thought. Experiment 2 showed that age-related differences in directed forgetting occurred because older adults were less likely than younger adults to initiate a strategy to attempt to forget. When the instructions were revised to downplay their concerns about memory, older adults engaged in effective forgetting strategies and showed significant directed forgetting comparable in magnitude to younger adults. The results highlight the importance of strategic processes in directed forgetting.     

The test-retest reliability of the Form 90-DWI: an instrument for assessing intoxicated driving.

Although driving while intoxicated (DWI) is a pervasive problem, reliable measures of this behavior have been elusive. In the present study, the Form 90, a widely utilized alcohol and substance use instrument, was adapted for measurement of DWI and related behaviors. Levels of reliability for the adapted instrument, the Form 90-DWI, were tested among a university sample of 60 undergraduate students who had consumed alcohol during the past 90 days. The authors administered the instrument once during an intake interview and again, 7-30 days later, to determine levels of test-retest reliability. Overall, the Form 90-DWI demonstrated high levels of reliability for many general drinking and DWI behaviors. Levels of reliability were lower for riding with an intoxicated driver and for variables involving several behavioral conjunctions, such as seat belt use and the presence of passengers when driving with a blood alcohol concentration above .08. Overall, the Form 90-DWI shows promise as a reliable measure of DWI behavior in research on treatment outcome and prevention.     

Dynamical agents: Consciousness, causation, and two specters of epiphenomenalism

The aim of this paper is to defend the causal efficacy of consciousness against two specters of epiphenomenalism. We argue that these challenges are best met, on the one hand, by rejecting all forms of consciousness-body dualism, and on the other, by adopting a dynamical systems approach to understanding the causal efficacy of conscious experience. We argue that this non-reductive identity theory provides the theoretical resources for reconciling the reality and efficacy of consciousness with the neurophysiology of the brain and body.

Alcohol Expectancies and Workplace Drinking1

The relationship between alcohol expectancies and work-related drinking was investigated in a survey of 984 employees from a large unionized manufacturing plant. Respondents were asked about their drinking at work, just prior to work, and in other contexts. Alcohol expectancies were measured by asking how likely or unlikely it was that work-related drinking would lead to 13 personal consequences. The items for this scale were derived from ethnographic interviews and observations in the plant and from a review of the workplace literature. Exploratory factor analysis indicated that the expectancy items formed two scales representing positive and negative consequences. These scales predicted work-related drinking in a simultaneous equations path analysis, even when general drinking practices and background variables were controlled. The analysis also indicated that workers who were younger, Caucasian, hourly, on evening or night shifts, and frequent or heavy drinkers outside of work may be at risk for work-related drinking because of their alcohol expectancies.     

CONTINGENT REINFORCEMENT OF ABSTINENCE WITH INDIVIDUALS ABUSING COCAINE AND MARIJUANA

Two males diagnosed with cocaine dependence received a behavioral intervention comprised of contingency management and the community reinforcement approach. During the initial phase of treatment, reinforcement was delivered contingent on submitting cocaine-free urine specimens. The community reinforcement approach involved two behavior therapy sessions each week. Almost complete cocaine abstinence was achieved, but regular marijuana use continued. During a second phase, reinforcement magnitude was reduced, but remained contingent on submitting cocaine-free specimens. Behavior therapy was reduced to once per week. Cocaine abstinence and regular marijuana use continued. Next, reinforcement was delivered contingent on submitting cocaine- and marijuana-free specimens. This modified contingency resulted in an abrupt increase in marijuana abstinence and maintenance of cocaine abstinence. One- and 5-month follow-ups indicated that cocaine abstinence continued, but marijuana smoking resumed. These results indicate that the behavioral intervention was efficacious in achieving abstinence from cocaine and marijuana; maintenance, however, was achieved for cocaine only.     

Periodic Reinforcement and Second-Order Schedules

In two experiments, rats were trained initially on a recycling conjunctive schedule in which a food pellet was delivered after 30 s provided at least one response had occurred; otherwise the next cycle began immediately. This produced low rate responding characterized by either a pause-respond-pause pattern or else a pause-respond pattern. The schedule then was changed so that half of the intervals ended with the presentation of a brief stimulus instead of food. Patterning after food was little affected, whereas patterning after the brief stimulus varied across rats. Generally, a short pause after the brief stimulus was followed by an initial increase in responding that led to either a fairly constant rate, or else to a decrease in rate throughout the interval. In later conditions, when the incidence of response-food and response- stimulus contiguity were manipulated separately, only the former increased response rate; this was so even when the brief stimulus was paired with food in some conditions. Rate increases were accompanied by changes in patterning across all intervals. These results do not support a simple conditioned reinforcement interpretation of the control acquired by a brief stimulus on a second-order schedule with fixed-interval components. Rather, they suggest that a number of interrelated variables combine to maintain responding. These variables include response-reinforcer contiguity, the temporal location of the response dependency, and the contingency between the brief stimulus and the reinforcer.

     

Leadership of antireligious propaganda in the Soviet Union

Re-emergent scientific atheism bears the marks of its historical origins in the efforts of Bon-Bruevi and Jaroslavskij. The disciples of the Lenin generation use their fathers somewhat as second-level classics.     

Effects of consistent aerobic exercise on the psychological functioning of women

Effects of consistent aerobic exercise on depression, anxiety, and health locus of control for a group of nonclinical inactive women were investigated. Type A and Type H (hard-driving) behavioral styles were evaluated to determine whether these traits were related to exercise improvement. 26 women were randomly assigned to either an exercise group (n = 10) or exercise with cognitive strategy instructions (n = 16). All subjects increased distance run in 12-min. run test from pre- to posttest. Women improved in depression and trait anxiety. Depression was significantly correlated with body mass index at end of program. Posttest state-anxiety was significantly correlated with 6-wk. follow-up of exercise frequency. No significant difference in pre- and posttest health locus of control was found. Type H scores were significantly correlated with number of exercise sessions attended. Consistent aerobic exercise had a positive effect on psychological functioning, and some characteristics may affect exercise improvement.