DNA markers associated with general and specific cognitive abilities

Multivariate quantitative genetic research suggests a hierarchical model of cognitive abilities where genetic effects are largely general, cutting across most cognitive abilities. Some genetic effects, however, are specific to certain cognitive abilities. These results lead to a hypothesis for molecular genetic research: Although most genes associated with one cognitive ability will be related to other cognitive abilities, some genes will be specific to a particular cognitive ability. The current research explored this hypothesis in an analysis of data in specific cognitive abilities from 86 children from 6 to 12 years of age from a larger allelic association study of general cognitive ability. Eight DNA markers were entered simultaneously in separate multiple regression analyses predicting each of four specific cognitive ability factors (Verbal, Spatial, Perceptual Speed, Memory), as well as WISC-R subtest scores. Four marjers (CTGB33, EST00083, HLA, and SOD2) showed similar effects across the cognitive ability scales, suggesting that they are related to general cognitive ability (g). These associations became negligible when the effects of ‘g’ (WISC-R IQ) were removed. Three markers (ADH5, DM, and NGFB) continued to be significantly associated with specific cognitive ability scales after the effects of ‘g’ were removed. Although preliminary, these molecular genetic results support the hierarchical model predicted by quantitative genetic research.     

Stability of anxious symptomatology in children

The stability of anxiety states and symptoms was assessed in a sample of 150 anxious and nonanxious children. A number of assessment methods including a semistructured interview, self-report instruments, psychophysiological measures, and parental reports were used initially and at intervals up to 6 months later. The majority of children with a diagnosed anxiety disorder at the initial assessment still manifested significant symptomatology at the 6 month follow-up. However, stability of specific anxiety symptoms when assessed by self- and parental reports was mixed. With respect to psychophysiological assessment, stability of responses was evident at 2 weeks but not after 6 months. Results are discussed in terms of the stability of diagnoses and symptomatology, and the need for thematically relevant self-reports and behavioral assessment tasks. Recommendations are made for the development of a reliable, multimethod strategy to assess the multiple domains of childhood anxiety.This study was supported in part by NIMH Grant MH43252.     

Relation of Family Problems to Patterns of Delinquent Involvement Among Urban Youth

The relation of patterns of family problems and patterns of delinquent behavior over time was evaluated among a sample of inner-city minority adolescent males. Empirically derived groups were identified and included: nonoffenders, chronic minor offenders, escalators, and serious chronic offenders. Patterns of family problems were also identified and differentially related to delinquency groups. Members of the group involved in serious chronic offending were more likely to have families characterized by multiple problems including disruption, conflict, and lack of parental involvement, sometimes so extreme as to meet the legal requirement of neglect. They were also more likely to have families characterized by deviant behavior and attitudes. The finding of specific relations between types of family problems and patterns of delinquent behavior has important implications for intervention and prevention. Rather than assuming a general relation between family functioning and delinquent involvement, specific aspects of family functioning may need to be targeted to affect different patterns of delinquent involvement.     

Peripheral visual processing

An attempt was made to examine the development of the ability to identify stimuli presented to peripheral vision in several different tasks. Five- and 8-year-old children and college adults saw, for 20 msec, either a single figure at 1°, 2°, 4°, or 6° of visual angle from the fovea (singleform condition) or an off-foveal figure with an additional figure at the fovea (double-form condition). In the double-form conditions, the subjects were required to identify either the peripheral figure only (double-form presentation) or both figures (double-form report). The main effects of Age, Distance, and Form Condition were significant. Accuracy improved with increasing age and with decreasing distance. The Form Condition effect reflected lower accuracy in the two double-form conditions than in the single-form condition. Interestingly, there was no difference between the two double-form conditions, suggesting that the mere presence of a foveal stimulus, with instructions to ignore it, produces as much decrement in peripheral performance as when subjects are told to fully process and report the foveal stimulus. Also, there was no interaction between Form Condition and Distance, suggesting that the label “tunnel vision” may be misleading, since the presence of the foveal stimulus seems to have an equal effect on all peripheral locations and does not really “restrict” the size of the effective visual field.     

Incomplete taste adaptation to different concentrations of salt and sugar solutions

Two concentrations each of sodium chloride and sucrose solutions were used as stimuli in a study examining taste adaptation. Twenty subjects were presented a 3-min continuous flow of each taste stimulus over the anterior dorsal tongue surface, and periodically gave magnitude estimates of its intensity. The degree of adaptation was greater for the less concentrated solutions than for the more concentrated ones, but the majority of subjects did not adapt completely to any of the stimuli. This result, which is consistent with other reports from this laboratory, is discussed in terms of individual differences among subjects and in relation to recent taste research based on completely adapted subjects.     

The effects of unipolar sex-role identities and situational determinants on components of fear of success

In the present study the relationship between unipolar models of sex-role identity (i.e., the degree to which a person perceives him/her self as relatively masculine and/or feminine) and situational cues (i.e., females engaged in successful activities which vary in their sex-role appropriateness) on fear of success was investigated. An alternative, objective measure of fear of success was employed which generated 16 variables thought to reflect various theoretical and empirical components of the motive to fear success. These variables dealt with personal attributes of the successful characters, reasons for their success, and possible consequences of their success. It was found that situational rather than psychological variables are of greater importance in affecting female response to female success. However, there was some support for the notion that general diffusion of sex-role identity (undifferentiated sex-role identity group) rather than high femininity may be related to avoidance of success.     

Effects of the recipient's status and responsiveness on physical pleasuring between heterosexual strangers

Previous research relating status to intimate behavior has demonstrated that persons are more reluctant to initiate physical intimacy with another of higher than one of equal or lower status. The present research explored three potential interpretations of the observed relationship: (1) that persons perceive others of higher status as less likely to react positively to intimate behavior, (2) that social norms discourage intimate behavior toward higher status others, and (3) that persons of different status may be differentially liked. Using a modification of the apparatus developed by Davis, Rainey, and Brock, seventy-seven undergraduate subjects chose to give either a verbal or physically pleasurable reward for correct responses to a confederate learner whom they believed to be of either higher (PhD candidate), equal (freshman), or lower (high school drop-out) academic status. The learner was either responsive to the physical reward (expressing enjoyment) or unresponsive (remaining silent). In support of the first interpretation, status affected the magnitude of physical reward only when the recipient remained silent. When clear evidence of positive reaction to the vibrations was provided by the recipient's responsiveness, status differences were eliminated. This indicates that status may be used as a basis for regulating intimate behavior only when direct information about the recipient's reactions is unclear or unavailable. The differential liking interpretation received no support, in that status affected neither rated liking of the recipient nor the magnitude of verbal reward.     

Estimation tests as a means of quantifying linguistic expectancy

Objective word counts of English and Dutch were used to carry out binary choice tests concerning frequencies of occurrence of word-initial consonant clusters. Subjects were native speakers of English or Dutch. Results indicate that subjective estimations are logarithmically related to objective data and that there is an improvement in frequency judgments with increased overall second language proficiency.Frequency estimation tests are envisaged as a means for testing second language proficiency. The degree of difficulty in estimating frequencies of clusters seems to be language specific.     

The time course of learned helplessness, inactivity, and nociceptive deficits in rats

Four experiments are reported which explore the nature of the effects of inescapable shock on subsequent shuttlebox escape learning. The first experiment demonstrated that shuttle escape deficits dissipate within 48 hr after treatment with inescapable shock. Experiment 2 showed that exposure to inescapable shock suppressed unlearned activity in the shuttlebox and that this activity deficit recovered within 48 hr. Experiment 2A demonstrated that this shuttlebox crossing decrement was at least partly attributable to the inescapability of the shocks. These results suggested that activity factors might partly mediate the shuttle escape learning deficit reported in Experiment 1. Experiment 3 explored the possibility that activity and shuttle escape learning deficits are subserved by the effects of inescapable shock on pain sensitivity. The results supported this notion. It was found that rats were less sensitive to painful stimulation 24 hr after inescapable shock and that this analgesic tendency also dissipated within 48 hr after pretreatment. The implications of these results were discussed.     

NOVA SKED II: A behavioral notation language utilizing the Data General Corporation real-time disk operating system

A software system (NOVA SKED) was developed for the experimental control and collection of data from operant behavior experiments that is compatible with the Data General Corporation real-time disk operating system (RDOS). NOVA SKED is based on the SKED state notation language originally implemented on Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-8 series of minicomputers. The system includes a compiler written in FORTRAN, a multitasking run-time system that can be configured to run up to 30 stations, a data back-up system, standard data manipulation programs and subroutines, and user manuals.