On a metric,unidimensional unfolding model for attitudinal and developmental data

If stimulus responses are linearly related to squared distances between stimulus scale values and person scores along a latent continuum, (a) the stimulus × stimulus correlation matrix will display a simplex-like pattern, (b) the signs of first-order partial correlations can be specified in an empirically testable manner, and (c) the variables will have a semicircular, two-factor structure. Along the semicircle, variables will be ordered by their positions on the latent dimension. The above results suggest procedures for examining the appropriateness of the model and procedures for ordering the stimuli. Applications to developmental and attitudinal data are discussed. This research was supported by a grant from the Graduate School of the University of Minnesota to the author and by a grant from the U. S. Public Health Service (Grant No. 1-R01-MH27861-01) to Dr. James Rest, Principal Investigator.     

Turning aggression on the self: a study of psychoanalytic process

The concept of turning aggression on the self is studied, and some clinical vignettes are presented which demonstrate the use of this concept as a guide to the formation of an "ideal" for one kind of analytic intervention with one kind of analytic surface. Pertinent literature is reviewed, and assumptions implicit to the analyst's activity are discussed. This endeavor is viewed in the larger context of attempts to arrive at a clearer understanding of the psychoanalytic process.     

Delayed reinforcement and delayed choice in symbolic matching to sample: Effects on stimulus discriminability

Six pigeons were trained to peck a red side key when the brighter of two white lights (S₁) had been presented on the center key, and to peck a green side key when the dimmer of two white lights (S₂) had been presented on the center key. Equal frequencies of reinforcers were provided for the two types of correct choice. Incorrect choices, red side-key pecks following S₂ presentations and green side-key pecks following S₁ presentations, resulted in blackout. With 0-s delay between choice and reinforcement, the delay between sample presentation and choice was varied from 0 to 20 s. Then, with 0-s delay between sample presentation and choice, the delay between choice and reinforcement was varied from 0 to 20 s. Both types of delay resulted in decreased discriminability (defined in terms of a signal-detection analysis) of the center-key stimuli, but delayed choice had more effect on discriminability than did delayed reinforcement. These data are consistent with the view that the two kinds of delay operate differently. The effect of a sample-choice delay may result from a degradation of the conditional discriminative stimuli during the delay; the effect of a choice-reinforcer delay may result from a decrement in control by differential reinforcement.     

Choice: Effects of changeover schedules on concurrent performance

The components of concurrent schedules were separated temporally by placing interval schedules on the changeover key. The rates of responding on both the main and changeover keys were examined as a function of the reinforcement rates. In the first experiment, the sensitivity of main-key performance to changing reinforcement rates was inversely related to the temporal separation of components, and changeover performance was monotonically related to the ratio of the reinforcement rates. In the second experiment, when the ratio of the reinforcement rates was scheduled to remain constant while the frequency of reinforcement was varied, changeover performance did not remain constant. A “sampling” interpretation of changeover responding was proposed and subsequently tested in a third experiment where extinction was always scheduled in one component and the frequency of reinforcement was varied in the second component. It was concluded that changeover performance can be interpreted using molar measures of reinforcement and that animals sample activities available to them at rates which are controlled by relative reinforcement rates.     

Testing a unidimensional,qualitative unfolding model for attitudinal or developmental data

Assuming that subject responses rank order stimuli by preference, statistical methods are presented for testing the hypothesis that responses conform to a unidimensional, qualitative unfolding model and to an a priori stimulus ordering. The model postulates that persons and stimulus variables are ordered along a single continuum and that subjects most prefer stimuli nearest their own position. The underlying continuum need not form an interval scale of the stimulus attribute. The general assumptions of the test for the unfolding model make it suitable for the analysis of structure in attitude responses, preference data, and developmental stage data.This research was supported by a grant from the U.S. Public Health Service (Grant No. 1-R01-MH27861-01) to the University of Minnesota. I wish to thank Sanford Weisberg for his helpful suggestions. I also wish to thank Karen Kitchener and Patricia King for letting me use their data.     

Response rate and changeover performance on concurrent variable-interval schedules

Six pigeons were exposed to variable-interval schedules arranged on one, two, three, and four response keys. The reinforcement rate was also varied across conditions. Numbers of responses, the time spent responding, the number of reinforcements, and the number of changeovers between keys were recorded. Response rates on each key were an increasing function of reinforcement rate on that key and a decreasing function of the reinforcement rate on other keys. Response and time-allocation ratios under-matched ratios of obtained reinforcements. Three sets of equations were developed to express changeover rate as a function of response rate, time allocation, and reinforcement rate respectively. These functions were then applied to a broad range of experiments in the literature in order to test their generality. Further expressions were developed to account for changeover rates reported in experiments where changeover delays were varied.     

Examination of the screening properties of the personality diagnostic questionnaire 4+ (PDQ-4+) in a prison population

There is a high prevalence of personality disorder in most prison populations. Many pass through the system undiagnosed. A screening instrument would improve identification. This study examined the screening properties of the Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire-4+ (PDQ-4+) in prisoners convicted of violent and sexual offenses. A sample of British prisoners completed the self-report PDQ-4+ and were interviewed using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II disorders. When used to generate a total score, the PDQ-4+ had an acceptable overall accuracy as measured by the area under the Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) curve. The PDQ-4+ appears to have the properties suitable for use as a screening instrument, particularly when screening for the presence or absence of personality disorder rather than for individual personality disorder categories. A graph is presented from which choices of cut-off score for different combinations of sensitivity and specificity can be made. A cut off total score of 25 or above yielded near optimal sensitivity and specificity. The suggested cut off score for this population is lower than that previously suggested.     

Response cost and the control of verbal behavior under free-operant avoidance schedules

Human subjects were tested in a free-operant avoidance procedure. Shock could be avoided by the emission of a verbal response of adequate intensity and duration. These schedules were found to control the emission of verbal operants in the same way they control motor operants. Some subjects showed conventional control by this schedule with or without response-produced feedback. Other subjects verbalized at a high rate under both these conditions until the addition of response cost brought this behavior under conventional schedule control.     

Functional consistency in the face of topographical change in articulated thoughts

Studies of verbal reports have always assumed that thoughts verbalized on a given occasion are not the only ones that could have been expressed. This poses a potential problem for a recently developed thinkaloud procedure called Articulated Thoughts in Simulated Situations (ATSS). To address this issue, comparisons were made between the articulated thoughts of subjects over two presentations of a simulated stressful event in the ATSS procedure. Articulated thoughts were analyzed for similarity across presentations both topographically for surface content and inferentially for the amount of irrationality. While the topographic analysis generally suggested a lack of stability across presentations, the inferential analysis revealed little change. The suggestion is made that incomplete verbal protocols are not problematic for ATSS if the coding strategy taps into the underlying structure presupposed by one's theoretical interest.Kennon Kashima, M.A., is a member of the core faculty in psychology at Goddard College. Gerald, C. Davison, Ph.D., is the Chair and Professor of Psychology, University of Southern California.We extend thanks to Thomas Weiler for running the subjects, to Kevin Brown and Sandra Lew for doing the inferential content analysis, and to Sharon Dolezal and David Haaga for conducting the topographical content analysis.