Formal assessment of problem-solving and planning processes in preschool children

While much is known about adult problem-solving, the materials, analyses, and theoretical issues from the adult literature rarely make contact with the tasks typically used to investigate children's thinking. This paper examines the behavior of 4-, 5-, and 6-year-old children attempting to solve a novel variant of the Tower of Hanoi task. Problems varied in difficulty (one to seven moves for the minimum path solution) and in goal type: tower (all objects on one peg) or flat (all pegs occupied). For each problem, children gave verbal statements of their complete solution plan. The Plan Analysis examined performance as a function of goal type and age. Better performance was observed for tower ending problems, and among older children. The Error Analysis revealed that specific error propensities were related to both age and goal type. The Strategic Analysis compared the first move profiles of 6-year-olds to those of several plausible move selection models, and a high degree of correspondence was obtained between specific models and individual children. Young children appear to have rudimentary forms of many of the problem-solving processes previously identified in adults, but they may differ in encoding and representational processes.     

Measurement of sexual arousal in several paraphilias: The effects of stimulus modality,instructional set and stimulus content on the objective

The effects of instructional set (become aroused or suppress arousal), stimulus modality (videotape, audiotape, slides, free fantasy) and stimulus content (paraphilic or non-paraphilic) on sexual arousal, as measured by penile plethysmograph, of six different groups of paraphilics, pedophiles, rapists, exhibitionists, homosexuals, sado-masochists and fetishists, were determined. The results showed significant main effects of instructional set and of stimulus modality (videotape was clearly more arousing) as well as several complex interactions of diagnostic group with the other independent variables.     

Design and implementation of a microcomputer-based adaptive testing system

Adaptive testing is a relatively new form of test administration in which a test is tailored to the individual taking it by choosing items most informative about that person. Methods for determining which items are most appropriate take on a variety of forms, some requiring extensive computation, and almost all requiring administration by a computer. The increasing availability of inexpensive microcomputer systems has made adaptive testing possible when access to larger computer systems is impractical. To make implementation of a variety of adaptive testing methods feasible on a microcomputer, a system efficient from both the examinee’s and the test constructor’s perspectives is necessary. This paper begins by briefly outlining the strategies of adaptive testing developed to date and showing how, structurally, they can be grouped into three general categories. Considerations in design of a test-specification subsystem are then discussed as they relate to this categorization. Finally, a specific implementation of a subsystem for use under the CP/M microcomputer operating system is described. Techniques used to make the extensive computations required by adaptive testing feasible on a microcomputer are presented.     

Developing a laboratory course using PASCAL on the Apple II

Several resources are available to the person seeking to develop a laboratory course that utilizes microprocessors. Several roles for such equipment are envisioned, and some of the issues regarding types of equipment and programming languages are addressed.     

Subjective contours can facilitate performance in a reaction-time task

Subjective contours were compared with objective contours in their ability to facilitate performance in speeded tasks that required judging the position of a dot or the slope of a line segment relative to the contour. Subjective contours were found to reduce both reaction times and error rates for dot localization but not for the more difficult slope discrimination task. These results add to the growing body of evidence suggesting that subjective contours have functional properties similar to those of objective contours.     

Exercise, changes in aerobic capacity, and changes in self-perceptions: An experimental investigation

Subjects in an exercise training condition participated in a 10-week aerobic exercise class, whereas subjects in waiting-list control and independent control conditions did not. The results indicated that subjects in the training condition evidenced reliably greater improvements in physical fitness (aerobic capacity) and reported reliably greater improvements in their abilities and confidence in both the physical area (e.g., ability to run distances) and nonphysical area (e.g., frustration tolerance) than did subjects in the control conditions. On the other hand, improvements in physical fitness were not related to reported improvements in abilities and confidence. These findings are of interest because they indicate that some of the important personal changes that are associated with physical fitness training are not due to changes in fitness, but appear to be due to other factors (e.g., group participation and expectancies).     

Interactive effects of generalized and situational expectancies on the arousal of cognitive and emotional components of social anxiety

This study examined the arousal of social anxiety in an interview setting as a function of anticipated self-disclosure. Of 88 college students who completed the Social Avoidance and Distress (SAD) scale and other measures of social anxiety, self-disclosure, need to affiliate, and interpersonal trust, 24 volunteered for the interview. During the interview, both components of anxiety (worry and emotionality) were affected by expectancy conditions, and emotionality was higher for high- than for low-SAD subjects. The prediction of an interaction between SAD level and expectancy condition on worry was confirmed: only high-SAD subjects exposed to the negative-expectancy condition experienced significant elevations in worry. Though social anxiety and self-disclosure measures correlated negatively, anxiety did not affect self-disclosure during the interview.     

Factors underlying the social readjustment rating scale

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) was administered to 185 subjects whose age ranged from 21 to 61 yr. The responses were factor analyzed for a principal axis solution followed by isopromax oblique rotation. All the items were loaded and clustered under five factors labeled as follows: (1) personal growth, maturation, and renewal; (2) tension and uncertainty; transitions in personal or occupational situations; (3) changes in one's usual routine and relationship; (4) significant changes in family or mirriage; and (5) personal catastrophies. Males scored significantly higher than females on factors 4 and 5. There were no age differences in the obtained scores. The finding of the factorial structure was thought to add credence to the scale especially in view of past criticism. Implications for future research were also discussed.     

Psychosocial aspects of fertility behavior: an overview

Selected aspects of decision making in fertility behavior are reviewed. Attention is directed to assessing motivational determinants, the value of children, the concept of "wantedness," delayed childbearing, and adolescent fertility. A woman's decision to use or not to use a birth control method is heavily influenced by partner interaction. The perception of the partner's attitudes and degree of control in the couple relationship are likely to affect the type of method used, the consistency of contraceptive practice, and the resolution of eventual pregnancies. The present generation in many countries is the 1st to be involved in the conscious process of deciding when and how many children to have and to discontinue contraception. The psychosocial model of fertility behaviour emphasizes the subjective assessment of the environment by the individual and the importance of the 2 partners in a couple influencing each other's perceptions and choice behavior. A key feature of successful couple planning behavior is their joint ability to anticipate future outcomes, plan ahead, and develop contingency alternatives. The history of attempts to explain and delineate motivational determinants of fertility behavior is long and filled with testimonials regarding the complexity of the task. It has been well documented in cross-national studies and commentaries that the pleasures which parents experience in raising their children are highly valued. The gradual transition in the perceived economic value of children probably reflects changing parental attitudes accompanying the secular decline in fertility rates. Reducing the number of unwanted pregnancies has been and continues to be one of the major objectives of international planned parenthood and responsible parenthood movements. No published evidence exists, however, that the unexpected, unplanned, or even unwanted pregnancy is always "bad" or that a planned pregnancy more often produces a psychologically healthy child. To date research has been sparse on the effect of a 1st birth as a conditional factor influencing the number and spacing of subsequent births. Little attention has focused on the process of continuing employment and parenthood. Amid the generally falling birth rates for women under age 20, the number of births to women under age 16 has increased from approximately 25,000 in 1960 to 42,000 in 1977. In the U.S. adolescents bearing children are the least likely to receive adequate prenatal care, are most at risk for having a low birth weight baby, and are more exposed to complications of labor and delivery.