Response latencies in naming objects

After some preliminary analysis of what is involved in naming objects, in which the possible role of classificatory systems in the memory store is discussed, it is shown experimentally that there are consistent differences between the times taken to respond to presented objects by uttering their names, variations between the performances of different individuals being outweighed by variations due to the different objects. Moreover, there is a high consistency between different individuals as to the ordering of objects in respect of their naming latencies. It is further shown that a high correlation exists between the time taken to name an object and the frequency with which its name occurs in the language as a whole, as estimated in the Thorndike-Lorge Word List. Some implications of these findings are discussed, especially with reference to possible mechanisms by which presented objects are visually identified, and the appropriate names retrieved from the “word-store.”     

Memory performance awareness in younger and older adults

Reports on the course of memory-monitoring skills across adulthood are discrepant in conclusions and limited in scope. The purpose of this study was to build a large data base (3 samples and 7 different tasks) to assess performance awareness. Younger (19-41 years) and older (59-93 years) Ss estimated performance either before (i.e., predictions) or after (i.e., postdictions) completing each task. Predictions were less accurate than postdictions at both age levels, suggesting Ss monitored performance during the study-test cycle. Overall, the data suggested no consistent age effects in performance awareness: Age differences in monitoring occurred only in predictions and only for some tasks. Between-tasks differences in age effects could not be attributed to a single mediating mechanism like those suggested in previous reports. Why previous research has produced conflicting conclusions about metacognitive development in adulthood is discussed in light of these data.     

Structural equation models of relationships between exercise and cognitive abilities

Data were obtained from 300 men and women aged 55 to 91. Separate structural equation models of relationships between physical exercise and 3 cognitive performance variables--reaction time, working memory, and reasoning--fit the data well. Other variables in the models were age, health, education, and morale. Age and exercise affected each performance variable directly; education had a direct effect on reasoning only. There were also indirect effects of age and health on performance variables, mediated through exercise. The main hypothesis of the study, that exercise contributes to performance, was supported. A large decrease in model fit resulted when the path from exercise to each performance variable was deleted. Hypotheses that age-related deficits are primarily accounted for by lack of exercise or by poor health were not supported.     

Retrospective assessment of marital adjustment and depression during the first 2 years of spousal bereavement

Two hundred twelve bereaved elders rated marital adjustment using items drawn from the Locke and Wallace (1959) Marital Adjustment Test and completed the Beck Depression Inventory 2 months, 12 months, and 30 months after the loss of their spouses. Their responses were compared with those of 162 nonbereaved individuals of comparable age who were tested at the same times. More positive ratings of marital adjustment were made by bereaved subjects than by nonbereaved subjects. Among nonbereaved elders, more severe ratings of depression were associated with lower ratings of marital adjustment. In the bereaved sample, however, the opposite was found: More severe ratings of depression were associated with higher ratings of marital adjustment. This pattern of results changed only slightly over the 2.5-year course of bereavement and was not influenced by gender. These results are discussed in terms of cognitive processes (e.g., idealization) that influence retrospective assessments of marital adjustment during bereavement.     

Gender Aware Therapy: A Synthesis of Feminist Therapy and Knowledge About Gender

The time has come to integrate feminist therapy and knowledge of gender into principles of counseling for both women and men. Gender Aware Therapy (GAT) is such a synthesis. GAT encourages counselors to facilitate the development of women and men through exploration of their unique gender-related experiences. The foundations, principles, stages, and applications of GAT are described.