Psychosocial aspects of fertility behavior: an overview

Selected aspects of decision making in fertility behavior are reviewed. Attention is directed to assessing motivational determinants, the value of children, the concept of "wantedness," delayed childbearing, and adolescent fertility. A woman's decision to use or not to use a birth control method is heavily influenced by partner interaction. The perception of the partner's attitudes and degree of control in the couple relationship are likely to affect the type of method used, the consistency of contraceptive practice, and the resolution of eventual pregnancies. The present generation in many countries is the 1st to be involved in the conscious process of deciding when and how many children to have and to discontinue contraception. The psychosocial model of fertility behaviour emphasizes the subjective assessment of the environment by the individual and the importance of the 2 partners in a couple influencing each other's perceptions and choice behavior. A key feature of successful couple planning behavior is their joint ability to anticipate future outcomes, plan ahead, and develop contingency alternatives. The history of attempts to explain and delineate motivational determinants of fertility behavior is long and filled with testimonials regarding the complexity of the task. It has been well documented in cross-national studies and commentaries that the pleasures which parents experience in raising their children are highly valued. The gradual transition in the perceived economic value of children probably reflects changing parental attitudes accompanying the secular decline in fertility rates. Reducing the number of unwanted pregnancies has been and continues to be one of the major objectives of international planned parenthood and responsible parenthood movements. No published evidence exists, however, that the unexpected, unplanned, or even unwanted pregnancy is always "bad" or that a planned pregnancy more often produces a psychologically healthy child. To date research has been sparse on the effect of a 1st birth as a conditional factor influencing the number and spacing of subsequent births. Little attention has focused on the process of continuing employment and parenthood. Amid the generally falling birth rates for women under age 20, the number of births to women under age 16 has increased from approximately 25,000 in 1960 to 42,000 in 1977. In the U.S. adolescents bearing children are the least likely to receive adequate prenatal care, are most at risk for having a low birth weight baby, and are more exposed to complications of labor and delivery.     

A psychometric analysis of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire

The psychometric properties of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire were examined in independent samples of male and female high school students, college students, and adults. In each of the six samples a two-factor structure (masculinity/instrumentality and femininity/expressivity) paralleling the empirically derived scales was found. Additional factor analyses of negative masculine and feminine traits were reported. Discriminant analyses revealed highly significant differentiation between the sexes. The reliabilities (Cronbach alpha) of the unit-weighted scales in each sample were also satisfactory.Support for this research was provided by NASA Grant NSG 2065 (Robert L. Helmreich, Principal Investigator) and NSF Grant BNS 78-08911 (Janet T. Spence and Robert L. Helmreich, Principal Investigators). The article was prepared while the second author was a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, with support from the Spencer Foundation, NIMH Grant 5T32MH14581-03, and the University of Texas Research Institute.     

An evaluation of the government's work experience programme for the young unemployed

An evaluation is offered of one of the Government's measures to alleviate youth unemployment-the Work Experience Programme (WEP). In a small-scale study conducted in Essex, most of the young people and employers involved in the scheme thought that its benefits considerably outweighed its disadvantages, and this view was shared by careers officers. The scheme helped the young participants to develop confidence in themselves and in their working potential, although at the same time it made them anxious about their ability and/or opportunity to continue this development. As a short-term response to youth unemployment, WEP has considerable value. Without certain improvements, however, it is not adequate for dealing with long-term structural unemployment.     

Sex differences in self-disclosure: Effects of topic content,friendship, and partner's sex

Male-female differences in self-disclosure were found as a function of sex stereotyping of topic content. Men disclosed less than women on “feminine” topics, which emphasized personal concerns and sensitivities. Men and women did not differ in disclosure on “neutral” topics, considered appropriate for both sexes to discuss. Men and women did not differ in disclosure on “masculine” topics (emphasizing assertiveness) in two of three experiments. Theoretical mechanisms that might mediate sex differences in self-disclosure were considered.     

Rorschach movement and color responses and MMPI social extraversion and thinking introversion personality types

Results of an analysis of MMPI profiles and Rorschach protocols scored by the Exner method for 100 psychiatric patients provided partial support for Rorschach's hypotheses that perceptions of color (FC, CF, and C) and movement (M) tap separate personality dimensions. First, the proportion of M responses on a protocol correlated significantly (p < .01) to thinking introversion as defined in terms of a subject's MMPI profile similarity to a prototypic MMPI profile with peak PtSc elevations. Second, the proportion of FC responses correlated negatively (p < .01) to social extraversion defined in terms of MMPI profile similarity to a prototypic MMPI profile with peak PdMa elevations. Hence, use of FC signified a socially reserved, controlled behavior. The findings regarding CF and C were inconclusive. Third, color and movement responses did not correlate significantly with somatization defined in terms of similarity to a prototypic MMPI profile with peak Hs, D, Hy elevations. Finally, the nonsignificant correlations of FC with M and with MMPI thinking introversion plus the nonsignificant correlation of M with color responses and MMPI social extroversion further supported the hypotheses that movement and color responses tap essentially unique personality dimensions.     

Alternate forms of the matching familiar figures test: a critical note

Criticism is leveled at attempts to develop alternative forms of the Matching Familiar Figures test when the literature suggests that what is required is a more reliable test, not simply an alternate version.     

School psychology-observation and reminiscence

Analyses of certain characteristics of the membership of the Division of School Psychology and some of its efforts are presented. Evidence is presented which suggests unequivocally that school psychologists, whom the schools clearly need, must be soundly grounded in relevant psychological testing theory, must be fully sensitive to the social characteristics and needs of each child in whose interests they work, and must be fully conversant with the relevance of their psychological perceptions to the educational functioning of those children.     

Stimulus control of delayed matching in pigeons: Directed forgetting

Pigeons were trained in delayed matching-to-sample with two postsample stimuli. A postsample R-cue signaled that a matching choice phase would follow. A postsample F-cue signaled that a matching choice phase would not follow. Previous research found reduced matching accuracy on F-cued probe trials when comparison stimuli were presented in the choice phase. The present four experiments systematically varied the events following an F-cue to determine the conditions under which the F-cue reduces delayed-matching accuracy. When F-cues and R-cues controlled different behavior, matching on probe trials was poor. When both cues controlled the same behavior, matching on probe trials was good. This result is best explained by the theory that comparison stimuli retrieve the sample representation, but only in the behavioral context established by the R-cue. The present research supports the view that response-produced stimuli serve a contextual role in animal short-term memory.     

Manager behavior in a social context: the impact of impression management on attributions and disciplinary actions

Two experimental studies were run to test the effects of subordinate impression management on the appraisals and responses of a manager, following an incident of poor performance. Two common impression management tactics, accounts and apologies, were manipulated in each of the studies. Subjects in both studies were experienced nursing supervisors. On the basis of the "discounting effect" reported in the attributional literature it was hypothesized that accounts of external causes for poor performance, i.e., excuses, would lead subjects to (1) attribute less responsibility to the subordinate, (2) be less personal in their responses, and (3) be less punitive in their responses. Apologies, because of their "equity restoration" effects, were expected to influence subjects' disciplinary responses to the poor performance, without necessarily affecting their attributions of responsibility. Experiment 1. which employed written stimulus materials and a repeated-measures design, provided strong support for all hypotheses. Experiment 2. which employed a film stimulus and between-subjects design, provided strong support for the accounts hypotheses but only minimal support for the apology hypotheses. The results highlight the importance of social information cues in the appraisal of performance.