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991.
Douglas Walton 《Synthese》2011,179(3):377-407
This paper argues that some traditional fallacies should be considered as reasonable arguments when used as part of a properly
conducted dialog. It is shown that argumentation schemes, formal dialog models, and profiles of dialog are useful tools for
studying properties of defeasible reasoning and fallacies. It is explained how defeasible reasoning of the most common sort
can deteriorate into fallacious argumentation in some instances. Conditions are formulated that can be used as normative tools
to judge whether a given defeasible argument is fallacious or not. It is shown that three leading violations of proper dialog
standards for defeasible reasoning necessary to see how fallacies work are: (a) improper failure to retract a commitment,
(b) failure of openness to defeat, and (c) illicit reversal of burden of proof. 相似文献
992.
An immunizing strategy is an argument brought forward in support of a belief system, though independent from that belief system, which makes it more or less invulnerable to rational argumentation and/or empirical evidence. By contrast,
an epistemic defense mechanism is defined as a structural feature of a belief system which has the same effect of deflecting arguments and evidence. We discuss the remarkable recurrence of certain patterns of immunizing strategies and defense mechanisms in pseudoscience and other belief systems. Five different
types will be distinguished and analyzed, with examples drawn from widely different domains. The difference between immunizing
strategies and defense mechanisms is analyzed, and their epistemological status is discussed. Our classification sheds new
light on the various ways in which belief systems may achieve invulnerability against empirical evidence and rational criticism, and we propose our analysis as part of an explanation of these belief
systems’ enduring appeal and tenacity. 相似文献
993.
Margaret H. Sibley William E. Pelham Brooke S. G. Molina Elizabeth M. Gnagy Daniel A. Waschbusch Aparajita Biswas Michael G. MacLean Dara E. Babinski Kathryn M. Karch 《Journal of abnormal child psychology》2011,39(1):21-32
This study examined the association between childhood ADHD and juvenile delinquency by examining data from the Pittsburgh
ADHD Longitudinal Study (PALS), a follow-up study of individuals diagnosed with ADHD in childhood (ages 5–12) and recontacted
in adolescence and young adulthood for yearly follow-up (age at first follow-up interview M = 17.26, SD = 3.17). Participants were 288 males with childhood ADHD and 209 demographically similar males without ADHD who were recruited
into the follow-up study. Delinquency information gathered yearly during the second through eighth follow-up provided a comprehensive
history of juvenile delinquency for all participants. Four childhood diagnostic groups [ADHD-only (N = 47), ADHD + ODD (N = 135), ADHD + CD (N = 106), and comparison (N = 209)] were used to examine group differences on delinquency outcomes. Analyses were conducted across three dimensions of
delinquency (i.e., severity, age of initiation, and variety). Individuals with childhood ADHD + CD displayed significantly
worse delinquency outcomes than the other three groups, across almost all indices of offending. When compared to comparison
participants, boys with ADHD-only and ADHD + ODD in childhood displayed earlier ages of delinquency initiation, a greater
variety of offending, and higher prevalence of severe delinquency. These findings suggest that although childhood ADHD + CD
creates the greatest risk for delinquency, boys with ADHD-only and ADHD + ODD also appear at a higher risk for later offending.
The patterns of offending that emerged from the PALS are discussed in the context of the relationship between ADHD, comorbidity,
and delinquency. 相似文献
994.
This paper addresses the issue of the relationship between Ralph Johnson’s idea of dialectical tier and the critical scrutiny
function in argument. We first give a concise articulation of the critical view of argument, and then probe into both the
apparent similarities and deep discrepancies between the critical view of argument and Johnson’s views on the dialectical
tier and manifest rationality. On that basis, we disprove the conjecture that the presence of a dialectical tier indicates
that the thesis in argument is critically established. However, we also urge to bridge together the critical view of argument
and Johnson’s theory of argument, and thereby to make the dialectical tier critical in nature. We argue that this could be
a promising proposal, and conclude with some remarks on exploring the critical dimension within our current study of argument. 相似文献
995.
Peter Jones 《Res Publica》2011,17(1):75-90
An objection frequently brought against critical or satirical expressions, especially when these target religions, is that
they are ‘offensive’. In this article, I indicate why the existence of diverse and conflicting beliefs gives people an incentive
to formulate their complaints in the language of offence. But I also cast doubt on whether people, in saying they are offended
really mean to present that as the foundation of their complaint and, if they do, whether their complaint should weigh with
us. These doubts do not apply to everything we might find offensive; in particular, they do not apply to simple cases of ‘sensory
offence’; but they do apply to ‘belief-based offence’. Relying on offence also implies, inequitably, that different faiths
should be differently protected depending on their susceptibility to offence; and the faithful themselves should worry about
the flimsiness of claims based on ‘bare knowledge’ offence. I propose a principle of respect for beliefs as a differently
grounded and more plausible reason for curbing our treatment of others’ beliefs. However, that principle has a limited compass
and is hemmed in by the claims of free expression. It is also less suited to dictating the content of law than to influencing
our conduct within the law. 相似文献
996.
The nucleus accumbens (NAc) has been implicated in mediating different forms of decision making in humans and animals. In
the present study, we observed that inactivation of the rat NAc, via infusion of GABA agonists, reduced preference for a large/risky
option and increased response latencies on a probabilistic discounting task. Discrete inactivations of the NAc shell and core
revealed further differences between these regions in mediating choice and response latencies, respectively. The effect on
choice was attributable to reduced win–stay performance (i.e., choosing risky after a being rewarded for a risky choice on
a preceding trial). Moreover, NAc inactivation altered choice only when the large/risky option had greater long-term value,
in terms of the amount of food that could be obtained over multiple trials relative to the small/certain option. Inactivation
of the NAc or the shell subregion also slightly reduced preference for larger rewards on a reward magnitude discrimination.
Thus, the NAc seems to play a small role in biasing choice toward larger rewards, but its contribution to behavior is amplified
when delivery of these rewards is uncertain, helping to direct response selection toward more favorable outcomes. 相似文献
997.
Kousta ST Vigliocco G Vinson DP Andrews M Del Campo E 《Journal of experimental psychology. General》2011,140(1):14-34
Although much is known about the representation and processing of concrete concepts, knowledge of what abstract semantics might be is severely limited. In this article we first address the adequacy of the 2 dominant accounts (dual coding theory and the context availability model) put forward in order to explain representation and processing differences between concrete and abstract words. We find that neither proposal can account for experimental findings and that this is, at least partly, because abstract words are considered to be unrelated to experiential information in both of these accounts. We then address a particular type of experiential information, emotional content, and demonstrate that it plays a crucial role in the processing and representation of abstract concepts: Statistically, abstract words are more emotionally valenced than are concrete words, and this accounts for a residual latency advantage for abstract words, when variables such as imageability (a construct derived from dual coding theory) and rated context availability are held constant. We conclude with a discussion of our novel hypothesis for embodied abstract semantics. 相似文献
998.
马克思与虚无主义问题 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
马克思的目的是要说明人对价值的需要无须超越历史就能得到满足。认为善(good)内在于历史上与断言善是与历史相同的并非一回事。马克思并不是一个历史主义者——如罗森所使用的术语——因为他没有把善与"所发生之事"等同起来。罗森认为,马克思必定主张在历史中发生的任何事情都是可允许的。马克思的标准是人,而不是历史中在马克思的特定意义上算作人类的(行动)的所有行动。实际上在历史进程中,绝大多数个体是以一种非人的方式把自己对象化的。这就是马克思把前共产主义时期描述为"前历史"的原因,因为那是这样一段时间,在其中社会存在是人类活动的无意识的产物。只有当诸个体自觉地决定其生活并把物质世界置于合作性控制之下,恰当意义上的历史才真正开始。 相似文献
999.
1000.
Previous research suggests that there is a relationship between social contexts (e.g., economic growth, engagement in wars) and motives within populations. In particular, high achievement motive is associated with subsequent economic growth, which in turn increases power motive. Increased national achievement and power motives have been argued to precede social changes that lead to decreased affiliation motives, and engagement in wars. The present study aimed to examine differences in achievement, power, and affiliation motives between 266 college students in China (a nation with sustained high economic growth) and 255 college students in the USA (a nation with previously strong but now slowing economic growth, and engaged in war). Analysis of personal strivings suggested that Chinese college students showed significantly higher levels of achievement motive than the American college students, but American college students showed significantly higher levels of affiliation motive than Chinese college students. Overall, males exhibited higher achievement motivation than females. No significant interaction effects were found for gender by location for any of the three motives. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research. 相似文献