Turning an advantage into a disadvantage: Ambiguity effects in lexical decision versus reading tasks

When performing a lexical decision task, participants can correctly categorize letter strings as words faster if they have multiple meanings (i.e., ambiguous words) than if they have one meaning (i.e., unambiguous words). In contrast, when reading connected text, participants tend to fixate longer on ambiguous words than on unambiguous words. Why are ambiguous words at an advantage in one word recognition task, and at a disadvantage in another? These disparate results can be reconciled if it is assumed that ambiguous words are relatively fast to reach a semantic-blend state sufficient for supporting lexical decisions, but then slow to escape the blend when the task requires a specific meaning be retrieved. We report several experiments that support this possibility.     

Neural correlates of person recognition

Rapidly identifying known individuals is an essential skill in human society. To elucidate the neural basis of this skill, we monitored brain activity while experimental participants demonstrated their ability to recognize people on the basis of viewing their faces. Each participant first memorized the faces of 20 individuals who were not known to the participants in advance. Each face was presented along with a voice simulating the individual speaking their name and a biographical fact. Following this learning procedure, the associated verbal information could be recalled accurately in response to each face. These learned faces were subsequently viewed together with new faces in a memory task. Subjects made a yes-no recognition decision in response to each face while also covertly retrieving the person-specific information associated with each learned face. Brain activity that accompanied this retrieval of person-specific information was contrasted to that when new faces were processed. Functional magnetic resonance imaging in 10 participants showed that several brain regions were activated during blocks of learned faces, including left hippocampus, left middle temporal gyrus, left insula, and bilateral cerebellum. Recordings of event-related brain potentials in 10 other participants tracked the time course of face processing and showed that learned faces engaged neural activity responsible for person recognition 300-600 msec after face onset. Collectively, these results suggest that the visual input of a recently learned face can rapidly trigger retrieval of associated person-specific information through reactivation of distributed cortical networks linked via hippocampal connections.     

MFT Students’ Recount Experiences of Attending Phone and Online Overeaters Anonymous Meetings

The purpose of this study was to explore Marriage and Family Therapy students’ experiences attending Overeaters Anonymous (OA). Utilizing a qualitative survey administered in an addictions course at an institution located in a rural area of the United States, 18 marriage and family therapy (MFT) graduate students reflected on their participation in both online and telephone meetings. In this study, MFT students provided their perspectives regarding the feasible utilization of Overeaters Anonymous in clinical treatment, with an emphasis on the consideration of social support for clients who may reside in rural areas. Three major themes emerged which included (1) enlightenment through exposure; (2) OA as a viable adjunct to therapy; and (3) convenience and comfort. The study addressed recommendations for MFT education, clinical implications, and future research.     

RESPONSE ALLOCATION IN CONCURRENT CHAINS WHEN TERMINAL‐LINK DELAYS FOLLOW AN ASCENDING AND DESCENDING SERIES

Eight pigeons were trained in a concurrent‐chains procedure in which the terminal‐link immediacy ratio followed an ascending or descending series. Across sessions, one terminal‐link delay changed from 2 s to 32 s to 2 s or from 32 s to 2 s to 32 s, while the other was always 8 s. For all pigeons, response allocation tracked changes in delay and was biased towards the 8‐s alternative on the descending series, indicating a hysteresis effect, and was more sensitive to changes in the terminal‐link delay ratio for relatively long (> 8 s) than short (< 8 s) delays. Both the hysteresis and effect of delay duration were predicted by an extended version of Grace and McLean's (2006) decision model. The extended decision model provided an overall better account of the results than a simple linear‐operator model (Grace, 2002), and holds promise for an integrated account of choice in concurrent chains for both acquisition and steady‐state conditions.     

A decision model for steady-state choice in concurrent chains

Grace and McLean (2006) proposed a decision model for acquisition of choice in concurrent chains which assumes that after reinforcement in a terminal link, subjects make a discrimination whether the preceding reinforcer delay was short or long relative to a criterion. Their model was subsequently extended by Christensen and Grace (2008, 2009a, 2009b) to include effects of initial- and terminal-link duration on choice. We show that an expression for steady-state responding can be derived from the decision model, which enables a model for choice that provides an account of archival data that is equal or superior to the contextual choice model (Grace, 1994) and hyperbolic value-added model (Mazur, 2001) in terms of goodness of fit, parsimony, and parameter invariance. The success of the steady-state decision model validates the strategy of understanding acquisition phenomena as a bridge toward explaining choice at the molar level.     

Case for Non‐Biased Intelligence Testing Against Black Africans Has Not Been Made: A Comment on Rushton,Skuy, and Bons (2004)

This reply reviews the conceptual, methodological, and statistical foundations of Rushton, Skuy and Bons' article in this journal that compared Black Africans, Whites and East Indians on the Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices, and concluded that the Raven's is an unbiased test. Through a technical re‐analysis of both the internal and external validity criteria for test bias using data reported in the Rushton et al. paper, we demonstrate that the Raven's Matrices test is in fact biased against Black Africans. We take issue with several additional elements of Rushton et al.'s study, including the use of non‐equivalent groups in test samples. We briefly review Rushton's racial‐realist research agenda and show that the assumption of test bias is central to advancing that agenda. Industrial/organizational and occupational psychologists should critically analyze and re‐evaluate the science employed in Rushton's racial‐realist research and also should better understand the ethical and social implications of accepting his reports of research findings on test bias and White–Black IQ differences as established scientific facts.     

To Be or Not Be? The Influence of Dissociative Reference Groups on Consumer Preferences

The current research explores the effects of dissociative reference groups on consumer preferences. Males had more negative evaluations of, and were less inclined to choose, a product associated with a dissociative (i.e., female) reference group than a neutral product (Study 1). This finding was moderated by whether the product was consumed in public or private (Study 2) and public self‐consciousness (Study 3). We suggest the mechanism underlying our effects is a desire to present a positive self‐image to others. The role of dissociative reference groups in marketing communications is discussed.     

Above the Scam: Moral Elevation Reduces Gullibility

Consumers are increasingly exposed to scams and questionable marketing practices. The current work examines how consumers’ emotional states influence their gullibility (a belief or compliance with a request that most people would consider naïve). Across four studies, we show that the emotional experience of moral elevation reduces susceptibility to believe dubious claims or comply with suspicious requests. While past research showed that moral elevation enhances nurturance behavior (and support of a requester), the current work suggests that elevation may also play a protective function (that is, reduce gullibility). We show that decreased trust in a persuasion agent mediates the influence of elevation on gullibility, and demonstrate this effect in the context of health and financial domains.