Remarks on the test of significance for the method of paired comparisons

A three-component model for comparative judgment which allows for individual differences in preference is proposed. An implication of the model is that errors in the observed proportions due to sampling individuals in paired comparisons experiments are correlated. By neglecting this correlation, Mosteller's test for the method of paired comparisons tends to accept falsely the goodness of fit of the Case V solution. It is shown that bounds may be set for the correlation effect which make a valid test possible in some cases and provide useful standard errors for the estimated affective values.Preparation of this paper has been supported in part by the Quartermaster Food and Container Institute for the Armed Forces. Views and conclusions expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views or endorsement of the Department of Defense. Comments of one of the reviewers, which substantially improved an earlier version of this paper, are gratefully acknowledged.     

Ratio and difference comparisons of expected reward in decision-making tasks

Several models of choice compute the probability of selecting a given option by comparing the expected value (EV) of each option. However, a subtle but important difference between two common rules used to compute the action probability is often ignored. Specifically, one common rule type, the exponential rule, compares EVs via a difference operation, whereas another rule type, the power rule, uses a ratio operation. We tested the empirical validity of each rule type by having human participants perform a choice task in which either the difference or the ratio between the reward values was altered relative to a control condition. Results indicated that participants can compare expected rewards by either ratio or difference operations but that altering the ratio between EVs produces the most dramatic changes in behavior. We discuss implications for several related research fields.     

Mental Health and Career Development of College Students

Little has been written about the reciprocal effects of the mental health and the career development of college students. Nevertheless, college students seeking services in college career and counseling centers often present both types of issues simultaneously. Service providers must, therefore, be cognizant of these potentially interactive issues. This article provides a summary of theoretical foundations and recent research regarding the interaction between psychosocial and career development. Implications for theory, research, and practice are provided.     

Summation in causal learning: elemental processing or configural generalization?

Results from human causal learning tasks that employ multiple cues are often interpreted in terms of the elemental theory of Rescorla and Wagner (1972). However, most results can also be successfully interpreted by the configural model proposed by Pearce (1987, 1994). One method of discriminating between these alternatives is through an investigation of summation and overexpectation. Indeed, demonstrations of these phenomena are fundamental to an elemental approach but are generally incompatible with an account that involves configural processing. Using a procedure in which the magnitude of the outcome varied, evidence for both summation and overexpectation was obtained in two experiments.     

From Number Lines to Graphs in the Coordinate Plane: Investigating Problem Solving Across Mathematical Representations

This article reports on students’ problem-solving approaches across three representations—number lines, coordinate planes, and function graphs—the axes of which conventional mathematics treats in terms of consistent geometric and numeric coordinations. I consider these representations to be a part of a hierarchical representational narrative (HRN), a discursive narrative around a set of representations that model conventional mathematics in structurally consistent ways. A paper-and-pencil assessment was administered to students in grades 5 and 8 along with videotaped interviews with a subset of students. Results revealed students’ application of particular meta-rules, which reflect their attempts to find and make use of recurring patterns in mathematics discourse. One such meta-rule, consistent with the HRN, was characterized by students’ coordination of geometric and numeric properties of an axis, whereas alternate meta-rules reflected coordinations inconsistent with conventional mathematics. Detailed analyses of problem-solving strategies are reported, and implications for theory, curriculum, and instruction are discussed.     

Dopamine,depressive symptoms,and decision-making: the relationship between spontaneous eye blink rate and depressive symptoms predicts Iowa Gambling Task performance

Depressive symptomatology has been associated with alterations in decision-making, although conclusions have been mixed, with depressed individuals showing impairments in some contexts but advantages in others. The dopaminergic system may link depressive symptoms with decision-making performance. We assessed the role of striatal dopamine D₂ receptor density, using spontaneous eye blink rates, in moderating the relationship between depressive symptoms and decision-making performance in a large undergraduate sample that had not been screened for mental illness (N?=?104). The regression results revealed that eye blink rate moderated the relationship between depressive symptoms and advantageous decisions on the Iowa Gambling Task, in which individuals with more depressive symptomatology and high blink rates (higher striatal dopamine D₂ receptor density) performed better on the task. Our computational modeling results demonstrated that depressive symptoms alone were associated with enhanced loss-aversive behavior, whereas individuals with high blink rates and elevated depressive symptoms tended to persevere in selecting options that led to net gains (avoiding options with net losses). These findings suggest that variation in striatal dopamine D₂ receptor availability in individuals with depressive symptoms may contribute to differences in decision-making behavior.     

Evangelism as Life‐affirming Activity in the City

In this article I will reflect on my role as a theological educator as I seek to engage students with the missiological context and challenge of the city, particularly Sydney, Australia. The article assumes that life‐affirming evangelism in the city requires adoption of the posture of a resident stranger in the city; an appreciation for the biblical narratives of creation, fall, redemption, restoration, and the contribution these make to an understanding of God's life‐affirming mission in the city; an openness to the likelihood of multiple and diverse responses to the city; and a commitment to developing life‐affirming practices that are potentially evangelistic. Finally, I reflect on urban and suburban aspiration and consider how this is best engaged by the practice and witness of life‐affirming evangelism.     

Ostracism Reduces Reliance on Poor Advice from Others during Decision Making

Decision making is rarely context‐free, and often, both social information and non‐social information are weighed into one's decisions. Incorporating information into a decision can be influenced by previous experiences. Ostracism has extensive effects, including taxing cognitive resources and increasing social monitoring. In decision making situations, individuals are often faced with both objective and social information and must choose which information to include or filter out. How will ostracism affect the reliance on objective and social information during decision making? Participants (N = 245) in Experiment 1 were randomly assigned to be included or ostracized in a standardized, group task. They then performed a dynamic decision making task that involved the presentation of either non‐social (i.e. biased reward feedback) or social (i.e., poor advice from a previous participant) misleading information. In Experiment 2, participants (N = 105) completed either the ostracism non‐social condition or social misleading information condition with explicit instructions stating that the advice given was from an individual who did not partake in the group task. Ostracized individuals relied more on non‐social misleading information and performed worse than included individuals. However, ostracized individuals discounted misleading social information and outperformed included individuals. Results of Experiment 2 replicated the findings of Experiment 1. Across two experiments, ostracized individuals were more critical of advice from others, both individuals who may have ostracized them and unrelated individuals. In other words, compared with included individuals, ostracized individuals underweighted advice from another individual but overweighed non‐social information during decision making. We conclude that when deceptive objective information is present, ostracism results in disadvantageous decision making. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Adult age differences in frontostriatal representation of prediction error but not reward outcome

Emerging evidence from decision neuroscience suggests that although younger and older adults show similar frontostriatal representations of reward magnitude, older adults often show deficits in feedback-driven reinforcement learning. In the present study, healthy adults completed reward-based tasks that did or did not depend on probabilistic learning, while undergoing functional neuroimaging. We observed reductions in the frontostriatal representation of prediction errors during probabilistic learning in older adults. In contrast, we found evidence for stability across adulthood in the representation of reward outcome in a task that did not require learning. Together, the results identify changes across adulthood in the dynamic coding of relational representations of feedback, in spite of preserved reward sensitivity in old age. Overall, the results suggest that the neural representation of prediction error, but not reward outcome, is reduced in old age. These findings reveal a potential dissociation between cognition and motivation with age and identify a potential mechanism for explaining changes in learning-dependent decision making in old adulthood.     

Long‐Term Outcomes of Lesbian,Gay, Bisexual,and Transgender Recalled School Victimization

The authors examined relationships among recalled and current bullying, shame‐focused coping, and fear of negative evaluation in an adult lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) sample. Findings indicated that attack self, withdrawal, and attack other shame‐focused coping fully mediated the relationship between recalled bullying and fear of negative evaluation. Fear of negative evaluation and current bullying victimization were predicted by shame‐focused coping. Findings suggested the importance of addressing histories of school‐related bullying and shame‐focused coping when counseling LGBT persons.