MOTIVATING STAFF PERFORMANCE IN AN OPERANT LEARNING PROGRAM FOR CHILDREN

Staff performance in a residential child-treatment facility was measured by counting the number of jobs completed and number of new procedures implemented within one week of their assignment. Public notices were posted listing each staff member's duties and new procedures to be implemented during the week. The notices produced an immediate increase in performance levels, which quickly tapered off. Staff members were then given tokens worth $1.00 each for performing jobs and implementing procedures within one week of assignment. The tokens regained and sustained high levels of performance when used in conjunction with the public notices. The use of public notices alone and tokens alone maintained better performance than baseline levels, but neither was as effective in starting and maintaining high-performance levels as was the combined use of the two.     

Modulation of Taste Aversions by a Pentobarbital Drug State: An Assessment of Its Transfer Properties

In a drug-discrimination procedure using conditioned taste aversions, a pentobarbital injection signaled a taste–toxin pairing while the vehicle injection signaled the same taste in the absence of the toxin. In transfer tests, drug states transferred control over consumption to other targets. If the training target was a fluid (saccharin), then transfer occurred to other fluids (both novel and familiar) but not to solid food. If the training target was food, then some transfer occurred to novel targets (both fluids and solid food) but not to familiar targets. Control rats revealed that the differential consumption seen during acquisition and during transfer tests was not due to the summation of two simple associations (i.e., drug–toxin and flavor–toxin) but rather reflected conditional control over consumption by the drug state.     

Clinical practice as natural laboratory for psychotherapy research: a guide to case-based time-series analysis

Both researchers and practitioners need to know more about how laboratory treatment protocols translate to real-world practice settings and how clinical innovations can be systematically tested and communicated to a skeptical scientific community. The single-case time-series study is well suited to opening a productive discourse between practice and laboratory. The appeal of case-based time-series studies, with multiple observations both before and after treatment, is that they enrich our design palette by providing the discipline another way to expand its empirical reach to practice settings and its subject matter to the contingencies of individual change. This article is a user's guide to conducting empirically respectable case-based time-series studies in a clinical practice or laboratory setting.     

Can CBT Be Effective for Aboriginal Australians? Perspectives of Aboriginal Practitioners Trained in CBT

The objective of the study was to investigate whether high and low intensity versions of cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) might be an effective therapeutic approach for enhancing the mental health of Aboriginal Australians. Five university‐educated Aboriginal counsellors received in‐depth training in CBT. Over the following year, they used CBT strategies with their clients, and met 10 times as a participatory action research group. The group addressed three key questions: (a) Does CBT appear to be useful for Aboriginal Australians? (b) If so, what elements of CBT are perceived to be effective? (c) What adaptations might be made to CBT to enhance its effectiveness with Aboriginal Australians? The resulting qualitative data were transcribed and analysed. Counsellors perceived CBT to be very useful for their Aboriginal clients and for themselves. They reported that it enhanced their clients' well‐being, their own clinical skills, and their own well‐being, and it reduced burnout. The qualities of CBT that were perceived to be effective were its adaptability, pragmatic here‐and‐now approach, capacity for low‐intensity interventions, safe containing structure, promotion of self‐agency, and valuable techniques. It was suggested that the prime requirement for adaptations to CBT were that they would need to fit different social and cultural contexts.     

Deconstructing executive deficits among persons with autism: implications for cognitive neuroscience

Individuals with autism demonstrate impairments on measures of executive function (EF) relative to typically developing comparison participants. EF is comprised of several processes including inhibition, working memory and set shifting that develop throughout the lifespan. Impairments in EF may appear early in development and persist, or may represent a more transient delay which resolves with time. Given the unevenness of the cognitive profile of persons with autism, understanding the development of EF poses methodological challenges. These issues include those related to matching measures and the choice of comparison participants to which the performance of persons with autism will be compared. In the current review, we attempt to break down the processes of inhibition, working memory and set shifting among persons with autism. We propose to do this within a developmental perspective that highlights how matching measures and comparison participants can affect the interpretation of research findings.     

Implicit probabilistic sequence learning is independent of explicit awareness

Studies into interactions between explicit and implicit motor sequence learning have yielded mixed results. Some of these discrepancies have been attributed to difficulties in isolating implicit learning. In the present study, the effect of explicit knowledge on implicit learning was investigated using a modified version of the Alternating Serial Response Time (ASRT) task, a probabilistic sequence learning paradigm that yields continuous and relatively pure measures of implicit learning. Results revealed that implicit learning occurred to the same extent, whether or not subjects had explicit knowledge. Some evidence, however, indicated that explicit knowledge could interfere with the expression of implicit learning early in training. In addition, there were dissociations between learning measures, in that reaction time and accuracy were differentially affected by explicit knowledge. These findings indicate that implicit sequence learning occurs independently of explicit knowledge, and help to explain previous discrepant findings.     

Event Timing and age deficits in higher-order sequence learning

Recent studies have reported age deficits in learning sequences that contain subtle sequential regularities (e.g., Curran (1997) Psychological Research, 60(1-2), 24; D. V. Howard et al. (2004) Psychology and Aging, 19(1), 79; Howard, J. H. Jr, & Howard, D. V. (1997). Psychology and Aging, 12(4), 634). This finding is of potential theoretical interest, but the contribution of sequence event timing to this deficit has not been investigated. This study used an alternating serial reaction time task to examine implicit sequence learning in young adults when event timing mimicked that experienced by older adults in previous research. We varied the response-to-stimulus interval directly in Experiment 1 and indirectly by degrading the stimuli to influence response time in Experiment 2. Results indicate that these "aged" young adults learned the higher-order sequence structure implicitly, but they learned less than young controls and more than old adults on some measures of implicit learning in both experiments. In addition, these two different experimental manipulations produced distinct patterns of deficits despite having nearly identical effects on event sequence timing. These findings suggest that event timing alone cannot explain the age deficits observed in high-order implicit sequence learning.     

An assessment of response, direction and place learning by rats in a water T-maze

Behavioral data suggest that distinguishable orientations may be necessary for place learning even when distal cues define different start points in the room and a unique goal location. We examined whether changes in orientation are also important in place learning and navigation in a water T-maze. In Experiment 1, rats were trained to locate a hidden platform and given a no-platform probe trial after 16 and 64 trials with the maze moved to a new position. Direction and response strategies were more prevalent than a place strategy. In Experiment 2, acquisition of place, response and direction strategies was assessed in a water T-maze that was moved between two locations during training. Rats were impaired on the place task when the maze was translated (moved to the L or R) but were successful when the maze was rotated across trials. These data are consistent with findings from appetitive tasks.     

Prevalence of severe behavior disorders in persons with mental retardation and treatment procedures used in community and institutional settings

A statewide survey of moderate and severe behavior disorders in persons with mental retardation in institutional and community settings was conducted. Information on the treatment procedures used and the adequacy of available resources in both settings was also gathered. Results indicated that community staff had considerably less experience than institutional staff in dealing with serious behavior disorders exhibited by persons with substantial cognitive and physical impairments. The types of aberrant behaviors with the highest prevalence rates showed differences in the institutions and the community. The largest differences in prevalence rates for severe behavior disorders in the two settings occurred for aggressive and self-injurious behaviors. Community staff thus had appreciably less experience than institutional staff in designing interventions for severe aggressive and self-injurious behaviors. About half of the identified individuals in both settings received psychotropic medications. Institutional staff were most likely to use restrictive behavioral procedures than community staff. Findings indicated that the most restrictive procedures were used primarily with only certain severe behavior disorders. Subjective ratings of the overall effectiveness of interventions were lower by community than institutional staff. The usefulness of the obtained data base for statewide planning in the area of behavioral supports is discussed.     

Memory-enhancing characteristics of client-recalled important events in cognitive and experiential therapy: Integrating cognitive experimental and therapeutic psychology

In an attempt to encourage further integrative theorizing and experimental work across cognitive and therapeutic psychology, characteristics of therapeutic events that might contribute to their ‘memorableness’ were examined. Scales that rate five ‘information processing’ characteristics of therapeutic events were employed to score such characteristics of 55 client-identified important and 55 matched control events taken from actual therapeutic sessions of both cognitive and experiential psychotherapies. Results indicated that scales scoring the ‘depth’, ‘elaborateness’, and ‘conclusion-orientation’ of therapeutic dialogue during the events examined tended to discriminate reliably and as predicted between client-identified important and control events, particularly when ratings of therapist talking turns were examined. Limited support also was found for a second prediction based on Paivio's (1986) dual coding theory of memory concerning different patterns of results for cognitive versus experiential therapeutic events. Suggestions are offered for further research on human memory for specific events in therapeutic and other areas of applied psychology.